Of Mice and Men on the American Dream

Of Mice and Men: The American Dream Quote #1: â€Å"I remember about the rabbits, George. â€Å"†The hell with the rabbits. That’s all you can ever remember is them rabbits. † (1. 18-19)| This is the first mention we have of the American dream. Even from the introduction, it seems Lennie is more excited than George about the prospect. George’s easy dismissal of â€Å"them rabbits† makes it seem as though he thinks the whole thing is silly. This will get more difficult as we realize that George might be as excited about the dream as Lennie; it seems he is just more cautious about that excitement, given that he’s more knowledgeable than his companion.Quote #2: â€Å"Well, we ain’t got any,† George exploded. â€Å"Whatever we ain’t got, that’s what you want. God a ‘mighty, if I was alone I could live so easy. I could go get a job an’ work, an’ no trouble. No mess at all, and when the end of the mo nth come I could take my fifty bucks and go into town and get whatever I want. Why, I could stay in a cathouse all night. I could eat any place I want, hotel or any place, and order any damn thing I could think of. An’ I could do all that every damn month. Get a gallon of whisky, or set in a pool room and play cards or shoot pool. Lennie knelt and looked over the fire at the angry George. And Lennie’s face was drawn in with terror. â€Å"An’ whatta I got,† George went on furiously. â€Å"I got you! You can’t keep a job and you lose me ever’ job I get. Jus’ keep me shovin’ all over the country all the time. † (1. 89)| George explodes at Lennie and rattles off what he imagines to be the dream-life of a travelling worker without any burdens (like Lennie). George dreams of a carefree life and is careful to emphasize that Lennie is the barrier. What George outlines for himself here is strangely predictive, given what will com e to him later in the story.Quote #3: GEORGE â€Å"O. K. Someday—we’re gonna get the jack together and we’re gonna have a little house and a couple of acres an’ a cow and some pigs and—† â€Å"An’ live off the fatta the lan’,† Lennie shouted. â€Å"An’ haverabbits. Go on, George! Tell about what we’re gonna have in the garden and about the rabbits in the cages and about the rain in the winter and the stove, and how thick the cream is on the milk like you can hardly cut it. Tell about that George. † â€Å"Why’n’t you do it yourself? You know all of it. † â€Å"No†¦you tell it. It ain’t the same if I tell it. Go on†¦George. How I get to tend the rabbits. † Well,† said George, â€Å"we’ll have a big vegetable patch and a rabbit hutch and chickens. And when it rains in the winter, we’ll just say the hell with goin’ to work, and weâ €™ll build up a fire in the stove and set around it an’ listen to the rain comin’ down on the roof—Nuts! † (1. 119-123)| This seed is one of the foundational pieces of the whole play, perhaps it’s most important. There are numerous bits to analyze in this passage, ranging from its reflection of the American Dream during the  Depression  to the fact that the dream is so repeated among the two men that even dull Lennie has memorized some of it.For our purposes, it’s very important that this talk of the farm is talked about wildly throughout the play – it seems like the farm is a dream to George, a hope for Lennie, and (eventually) even a plan for Candy. It’s especially interesting that sometimes it seems the farm is the dream that keeps them going, and sometimes it is just a reminder of the lack of usefulness of dreaming. Quote #4: Lennie watched him with wide eyes, and old Candy watched him too. Lennie said softly,  "We could live offa the fatta the lan’. † â€Å"Sure,† said George. All kin’s a vegetables in the garden, and if we want a little whisky we can sell a few eggs or something, or some milk. We’d jus’ live there. We’d belong there. There wouldn’t be no more runnin’ round the country and gettin’ fed by a Jap cook. No, sir, we’d have our own place where we belonged and not sleep in no bunk house. † (3. 202-203)| The bottom line of the dream for George is not the absence of work, or the easy living, or even having a lot of money. It is simply grounded in having some place to belong to him and Lennie and Candy.Quote #5: When Candy spoke they both jumped as though they had been caught doing something reprehensible. (3. 212)| Dreams are delicate things in the real world, and George and Lennie have always carefully kept their plan a secret. Faced with the gaze of someone from the outside world, the men seem asha med. The real world they live in would never allow or look kindly upon such a trifle as their dream, precious as it is to them. Quote #6: They fell into a silence. They looked at one another, amazed. This thing they had never really believed in was coming true. (3. 221)| On one hand, this could be amazing.On the other hand, we’re suddenly forced to ask whether the dream isn’t better off as a dream, something they can believe and imagine that’s bigger and better than any reality. One might argue that when Candy gets close to George and Lennie, he spoils the dream of the farm by making it a genuine possibility (and ironically, something that could be a disappointment), rather than an ongoing and eternal hope. Quote #7: [Crooks] hesitated. â€Å"†¦ If you †¦ guys would want a hand to work for nothing—just his keep, why I’d come an’ lend a hand. I ain’t so crippled I can’t work like a son-of-a-bitch if I want to. (4. 88) | Dreams are almost infectious. Even Crooks, whom we’ve only come to know for his not the person to believe up to now, he seems ready. It’s at this point we feel like this thing is really going to happen – or that it might just be too good to be true. Quote #8: Crooks called, â€Å"Candy! † â€Å"Huh? † † ’Member what I said about hoein’ and doin’ odd jobs? † â€Å"Yeah,† said Candy. â€Å"I remember. † â€Å"Well, jus’ forget it,† said Crooks. â€Å"I didn’ mean it. Jus’ foolin’. I wouldn’ want to go no place like that. † â€Å"Well, O. K. , if you feel like that. Goodnight. † (4. 148-153)| Crooks’s hope is broken.He can continue to live on the ranch, seemingly happy to be aloof, but we know from this episode that he stays on the farm because he has no dreams of anything better anymore. He had that dream for a moment again with the other g uys, and was quickly pulled back into the vicious world of those with no hope. When you can’t even dream, you really don’t have anything, and it seems Crooks’s lot in life is to be resigned to some pitiful nothingness. Quote #9: George said softly, â€Å"—I think I knowed from the very first. I think I knowed we’d never do her. He usta like to hear about it so much I got to thinking maybe we would. (5. 78)| Ironically, in the case of the dream farm, it is Lennie who is the main threat to the dream’s success, and it is also Lennie who makes the whole idea worthwhile. Quote #10: Lennie said, â€Å"George. † â€Å"Yeah? † â€Å"I done another bad thing. † â€Å"It don’t make no difference,† George said, and he fell silent again. (6. 34-37)| It seems now that George has given up on the dream, nothing much matters. Lennie’s â€Å"bad thing† obviously makes a huge difference, but within the fact of George’s concerns (making their dream a reality), what Lennie did or didn’t do doesn’t matter. The dream is over.

How important was the fear of Trotsky becoming leader in explaining Stalin’s victory in the power struggle in the years 1924-1929? Essay

Everyone believed Trotsky would take leadership after Lenin died, even if they didn’t want him to. No one thought it would be Stalin. Therefore, Stalin felt he had to defeat Trotsky in order to become leader. However, the fear of Trotsky becoming leader isn’t the only factor in explaining Stalin’s victory in the power struggle. Lenin died, January 21 1924. This is when the Lenin Legacy begun. Stalin took it upon himself to give a speech at Stalin’s funeral; he personally swore to carry on the work of Lenin. As General Secretary he supervised the Lenin Enrolment (expansion of the party in tribute to Lenin). He published a book â€Å"Foundations of Leninism†, a basic understanding of Lenin’s ideas for the uneducated. Stalin emphasised his commitment to Lenin by dishonoring Trotsky and other Bolsheviks by saying they were unfaithful. Stalin used the Decree against Factionalism to accuse opponents of disloyalty to the memory of Lenin. Stalin used the Lenin Legacy to his advantage all the way through the power struggle. In 1924, when The Lenin Enrolment was announced, the party increased from 500,000 to over 1 million members by 1926. The new members were young, in-experienced and lacking education. This meant Stalin could easily influence them. Zinoviev and Kamenev both feared Trotsky’s power more than Stalin. They teamed up with Stalin, in order to over-throw Trotsky. He was unpopular as he was extremely arrogant. Thus when he missed Lenin’s funeral due to Stalin telling him the wrong date, he became even more hated. In a Marxist fashion, Trotsky travelled the world, informing people of world revolution. This meant Stalin could build a good relationship with Russia, persuading everyone he would carry on the work of Lenin. In December 1924, Stalin spoke of â€Å"socialism in one country† Trotsky strongly disagreed and as a result he was accused of Factionalism. In January 1925, the Central Committee removed Trotsky from the War Commissariat. From 1928 onwards Trotsky lived his life in exile before being murdered in 1940. Stalin had allied with Zinoviev and Kamenev but after Trotsky’s defeat they were concerned that Stalin had too much power within the Party. Kamenev was defeated, his lost control of the Moscow Party. However Zinoviev fought back, he held onto the Leningrad Party and attacked the NEP policy. They argued that it was capitalist and it was time to introduce rapid industrialisation. However, they also questioned Socialism in One Country, which meant the attack was also against Bukharin. They realised that without an international revolution they wouldn’t reach Marxism Utopia, as the economic backwardness of the country would destroy the Soviet Union. Therefore, Stalin and Bukharin united. Once again, Stalin accused Zinoviev of Factionalism. Bukharin’s popularity and Stalin’s control of the delegates allowed them to defeat Zinoviev. At the 14th Party Congress in December 1925, angry delegates shouted down the slander of Stalin and defeated the programme of Zinoviev and Kamenev by 559 votes to 65. 1926, Zinoviev lost control of Leningrad to be replaced as Chair of the Comintern by Bukharin. Following this, Zinoviev and Kamenev tried to form an alliance with Trotsky (he had spoke out about the NEP policy in 1924) but there was little trust between them. In 1926, they released copies of Lenin’s Political Testament but it didn’t work, they were seen as Factionalists. They were removed from The Central Committee and secret police were used to stop the Political Testament being published. They were sent to exile. Stalin had defeated the Left wing of the politburos; he now planned to attack the Right wing. By 1926, the Soviet Union was effectively ruled by Stalin and Bukharin. Stalin saw the NEP as a compromise with the peasantry. Ironically, he now agreed with the United Opposition’s policies to introduce rapid industrialisation. He turned against Bukharin, Rykov, and Tomsky. In November 1929 Bukharin lost his position in the politburo. Stalin used his powers as General Secretary to purge the trades’ leadership thus Tomsky losing his post on the Central Council of Trades Union and his place in the politburo in 1930. 21 December 1929, Stalin’s 50th birthday, Pravda call him â€Å"the Lenin of today†, Stalin had finally won the power struggle. When looking at all of the factors for why Stalin won the power struggle, the fear of Trotsky coming into power seems a small influence. However, it was the difference in personalities and different views for the county that kick started the power struggle. Trotsky did not fight for power; he simply fought for what he thought was right. Even though he was an ex-Menshevik, he kept closest to the theory of Marxism. For example, when he lost his role of The War Commissariat he didn’t fight back. He never believed he would be in charge because he was Jewish. While it was important, I do not believe the fear of Trotsky to be the crucial component in Stalin winning the power struggle. He was a vindictive creature that would go to the extremes to get what he wanted. His political genius was much more vital. Without it I don’t think he would have got where he did. He was cunning in the fact that he was able to not only defeat the bodies of the politburo but also, use their skills to his advantage and then turn against them. As well as this, being General Secretary was a big advantage, it allowed him to keep the Political Testament a secret. The Lenin Legacy was also extremely important. When he expanded the Bolshevik party, I believe he brainwashed many of the new members. He used their lack of education against them.

Strtegic Mrketing Plan of Amazon Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Strtegic Mrketing Plan of Amazon - Case Study Example Ð mÐ °zÐ ¾n trÐ °nÃ'•fÐ ¾rmed itÃ'•elf frÐ ¾m Ð ° Ã'•peciÐ °lty retÐ °iler intÐ ¾ Ð °n Ð ¾nline Ã'•hÐ ¾pping pÐ ¾rtÐ °l, tÐ °king Ð ° cue frÐ ¾m Ð °uctiÐ ¾neer eBÐ °y, which Ã'•et itÃ'•elf up Ð °Ã'• Ð ° mediÐ °tÐ ¾r between buyer Ð °nd Ã'•eller. It Ã'•tÐ °rted Ã'•elling prÐ ¾ductÃ'• frÐ ¾m cÐ ¾mpÐ °nieÃ'• Ã'•uch Ð °Ã'• TÐ ¾yÃ'• "R" UÃ'• Ð °nd TÐ °rget Ð ¾n itÃ'• Web Ã'•ite. It Ð °dded merchÐ °ndiÃ'•e frÐ ¾m Ã'•mÐ °ller retÐ °ilerÃ'• in itÃ'• zÐ…hÐ ¾pÃ'•. Ð nd it cÐ ¾mpeted directly with eBÐ °y thrÐ ¾ugh itÃ'• Ð mÐ °zÐ ¾n Ð uctiÐ ¾nÃ'•. ThÐ µ firÃ'•t phÐ °Ã'•e Ð ¾f plÐ °nning Ã'•trÐ °tegic mÐ °rketing plÐ °n iÃ'• tÐ ¾ define thÐ µ buÃ'•ineÃ'•Ã'• miÃ'•Ã'•iÐ ¾n. Ð Ã'• (CrÐ °venÃ'•, 2003, 198) Ã'•tÐ °teÃ'• 'BuÃ'•ineÃ'•Ã'• miÃ'•Ã'•iÐ ¾n iÃ'• Ð ° brÐ ¾Ã °dly defined, enduring Ã'•tÐ °tement Ð ¾f purpÐ ¾Ã'•e thÐ °t diÃ'• tinguiÃ'•heÃ'• Ð ° buÃ'•ineÃ'•Ã'• frÐ ¾m Ð ¾thÐ µrÃ'• Ð ¾f itÃ'• type.' Briefly, buÃ'•ineÃ'•Ã'• miÃ'•Ã'•iÐ ¾n iÃ'• tÐ ¾ give thÐ µ directiÐ ¾n, which preÃ'•entÃ'• thÐ µ unique Ã'•cÐ ¾pe Ð ¾f buÃ'•ineÃ'•Ã'•, itÃ'• viÃ'•iÐ ¾n Ð °nd Ã'•pecific cÐ ¾mpetence & cÐ ¾mpetitive Ð °dvÐ °ntÐ °geÃ'•, Ð °nd tÐ ¾ tell emplÐ ¾yeeÃ'•, cÐ ¾nÃ'•umerÃ'•, (BeÃ'•t, 2000, 21) Ð °nd Ã'•hÐ °rehÐ ¾lder whÐ °t Ð ° cÐ ¾mpÐ °ny iÃ'• Ð °nd whÐ °t kind Ð ° cÐ ¾mpÐ °ny emplÐ ¾yeeÃ'• Ð °re in. It iÃ'• like Ð ° fÐ °ce Ð ¾f Ð ° cÐ ¾mpÐ °ny Ð ¾r Ð °n Ð ¾rgÐ °nizÐ °tiÐ ¾n thÐ °t repreÃ'•entÃ'• Ð °ll Ð ¾f it. In Ð °dditiÐ ¾n, buÃ'•ineÃ'•Ã'• miÃ'•Ã'•iÐ ¾nÃ'• Ð °re bÐ °Ã'•ed Ð ¾n fÐ ¾ur cÐ ¾re cÐ ¾nceptÃ'•, nÐ °mely purpÐ ¾Ã'•e, Ã'•trÐ °tegy, Ã'•tÐ °ndÐ °rdÃ'• Ð °nd behÐ °viÐ ¾rÃ'•, Ð °nd cÐ ¾mpÐ °ny vÐ °lueÃ'•. NÐ ¾kiÐ ° Ð °lwÐ °yÃ'• cÐ ¾mmunicÐ °t e thÐ µ cÐ ¾ncept thÐ °t thÐ µir prÐ ¾ductÃ'• Ð °re cÐ ¾nnecting tÐ ¾ peÐ ¾ple tÐ ¾ thÐ µir cÐ ¾nÃ'•umerÃ'•. ThÐ µy emphÐ °Ã'•ize deÃ'•ign, Ð °nd thÐ °t every functiÐ ¾n Ã'•hÐ ¾uld fit everyÐ ¾ne, becÐ °uÃ'•e technÐ ¾lÐ ¾gy iÃ'• humÐ °nity'Ã'• inventiÐ ¾n. FurthÐ µrmÐ ¾re, buÃ'•ineÃ'•Ã'• miÃ'•Ã'•iÐ ¾nÃ'• mÐ °y be influenced by three fÐ °ctÐ ¾rÃ'•. ThÐ µre Ð °re cÐ ¾mpÐ °ny'Ã'• cÐ ¾mpetence, envirÐ ¾nment chÐ °nge, Ð °nd reÃ'•Ð ¾urce reÃ'•pectively (BeÃ'•t, 2000, 21).

Macro & Micro economics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Macro & Micro economics - Essay Example The report also comments on the Government of China’s policy actions that are aimed at boosting the growth rate of the country’s economy (BBC, 2013). China's economy is the second-largest economy in the world. Currently, the country’s GDP has been estimated to be $12.38 trillion (according to the 2012 estimate) (CIA, 2013). However, recently the growth rate of the economy has slowed down significantly. After noting the declining performance level of the economy for the past few months, government has adopted certain policy prescriptions to improve the health of the economy. This paper discusses the main causes that lead to this issue and the level and pattern of impact that the problem casts on Chinese economy and society. The aggregate demand as well as the supply of goods and services in the economy is affected by this change in growth rate. The government is following expansionary monetary policy to improve investment climate in the economy and has increased l evel of public spending in order to increase domestic demand in the economy. Discussion on the economic problem issue China has depicted â€Å"soft growth momentum in the first quarter† (BBC, 2013) of 2013. ... Causes of the problem The article on BBC highlights two major concerns over the declining growth rate of the Chinese economy. Firstly, the economy has been heavily dependent on the export of various commodities and the major exports markets for the country are the USA and the European countries. The major items exported by the country are transport equipments, garments, accessories, toys, plastic products, machinery, rubber, textile, metallurgical products, Chemical products, fuel materials such as crude oil and refined oil, and food items (Peopledaily, 2001). China follows an export led growth and it has remained the largest contributor to the output of the global economy and accounts for nearly 3 percent of the global output. Although according to the International Monetary Fund, Chinese contribution to the global output is set to exceed that of USA, Germany and Japan; some economists have claimed in the past that the country would not be able to sustain its growth rate on the basi s of exports for a long time. After the financial crisis of 2009 that had hit the USA and the European countries hard, economic growth in these countries slowed down. These countries faced serious financial crunch and their import demand decreased. Therefore, the Chinese economy experienced a loss of in export market. This had a major impact on the economy and its performance. Since the exports in the Chinese economy weakened, different sectors in the economy slowed down their production rates and the total output in the economy decreased that is reflected in the country’s gross domestic product. The constant sluggishness of economic performance in these advanced countries,

The Causes and Effects of Water Pollution in Lake Huron Essay

The Causes and Effects of Water Pollution in Lake Huron - Essay Example Lake Huron suffers from a number of water pollutants that have greatly affected its flora and fauna as well as the freshness of its water. The lake endures point source pollution from industrial wastes and non-point pollution from fertilizer and pesticide runoff from surrounding farms. These pollutants result in adverse effects that contaminate soils, reduce the quality of its water and damage its ecosystem. The damage from pollution in this lake has harmful repercussions on the wildlife, fishes and human beings that depend on water from this lake. Point-source pollution This refers to the direct source of contamination in Lake Huron. This is often done when pipes or vessels direct their toxic wastes directly into the lake. Initially, paper and pulp industries located around the lake believed that water could dissolve anything and, thus, neutralize the toxicity of their wastes (Shear, 2006). This resulted in the companies dumping most of their wastes such as mercury into the lake. Ot her industries dump their wastes that contain harmful chemicals, heavy metals, organic toxins and oil by products into Lake Huron. In the recent past, fecal matter has been observed in the lake. This means that sewerage companies are directing wastes into the lake as well. This has resulted in the increase of harmful and disease causing bacteria in the lake. At the same time, the sewerage and other inorganic and organic wastes disposed off in the lake have resulted in a decline in the quality of Lake Huron’s water. Non-point source pollution This is pollution that does not come from a specific location. The most prevalent non-point source of pollution in Lake Huron is pesticide and fertilizer runoff. There are a number of farms surrounding Lake Huron. These farms depend on the lake for water that is vital for irrigation of the vast horticultural farms due to its constant and never-ending supply. These farms make use of a number of fertilizers and pesticides that are used to e nhance crop growth. However, the chemicals used in making these fertilizers and pesticides are often washed down from the crops by rain or irrigation water. These chemicals find their way into the lake through rivers and stream that empty their waters in the lake (Shear, 2006). This often results in the influx of harmful chemicals that greatly affects the lake’s ecosystem as evidenced by the large number of sea birds that are found dead along the lake’s shoreline. The fishes caught from this lake also have a lot of harmful chemicals in them. Residential waste Household waste has become one of the greatest Lake Huron pollutants. Residential wastes that contain organic or inorganic waste and detergents are major contributors to the lake’s water pollution. Organic waste is one which can be decomposed by bacteria such as fruit and vegetable remains. Inorganic waste includes wastes such as leather, plastic, paper, glass, fabric, metals and wood among other wastes whi ch do not decompose. These wastes cannot be broken down through the help of bacteria and is often referred to as non-biodegradable (Shear, 2006). Detergents are also not broken down easily by bacteria. This means that they remain active for prolonged periods after getting into the fresh water lake. This leaves the water polluted and results in the poising of aquatic organisms such as fish, birds and plants that reside in Lake Huron. Human and animal wastes

Ecommerce Assignment (National Bank of Dubai) Essay

Ecommerce Assignment (National Bank of Dubai) - Essay Example According to a study, by the Department of Psychology at Middle East Technical University, organizational success (of a web site) may be considered by the site's user-friendliness.4 The criteria specified in the study ("rollovers, pop-up menus, and search capabilities") to determine user-friendliness is, however; met by the NBD's web site. Therefore, based upon these criteria, it must be concluded that the site is an organizational success. The non transaction interactivity of the web site is sufficient and dynamic, yet rudimentary. The most attractive (and unique) aspect of this area is the "careers" section which shows the depth the bank has undertaken to inform potential employees of unique career paths. There is a very well formatted "site feedback" questionnaire as well as a separate link to contact the bank directly. However, an attempt to contact the bank, via this method (during working hours,) did not receive a reply as of the time of this writing. Privacy and security is a prime concern for all banks and customers and NBD appears to have a fairly good handle on the process.

Leadership handbook scoring rubric Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Leadership handbook scoring rubric - Term Paper Example The handbook is cohesive and has a consistent look and feel. Score: 2 Comments: the book is cohesive and consistent. The flow of information is consistent and the topics follow each other in a logical sequence Overall Presentation (visual elements, report format) The overall presentation of the handbook is not satisfactory and does not include visual elements or a report format. The handbook presentation is satisfactory for some of the sections but not for the entire handbook. The handbook provides an effective overall presentation with visual elements and all articles are in report format. Score: 1 Comments: most of the book is presented in a satisfactory way. There are however some cases in which some improvements such as in the table in page 14. Comprehensiveness The handbook does not provide comprehensive coverage of the selected leadership topics. The handbook provides some comprehensive coverage of the selected leadership topics but does not include major content areas critical for a new manager. The handbook provides a comprehensive coverage of the selected leadership topics and includes the major content areas critical for a new manager. Score: 2 Comments: the book chooses several topics and goes on to address them comprehensively. The book covers the major content areas that would be helpful to a new manager. ... Part B: Leading a Team Introduction From the various tasks that I have been engaged in, I have aimed to maintain a high level of integrity in my work, and remain accountable in the line duty. I have strived to ensure that the quality of my work is as expected. However, I have the self-awareness to recognize that I do have my strengths and weaknesses. The strengths that I possess enable me to be more efficient at my work while the weaknesses may sometimes hinder me from producing the best possible results in my work. Question 1: How the Team can Make Use of My Strengths A notable strength that has helped me achieve success in my work, which may enable me achieve the set objectives in the workplace is the ability to meet the set deadlines within the required amount of time. In meeting the deadlines I was still able to come up with work that was of high quality. This attribute can be used in the team to ensure that the members do not lag behind which would slow the entire team. The team can also make use of this strength to ensure that people do not do the work hurriedly without taking into consideration the quality of the work. Question 2: How to Improve on my Weaknesses One of the weaknesses that I have is that I lack the ability to contribute to a collaborative team environment. During the teamwork, I failed to effectively contribute to the team’s collaborative effort. In improving this weakness, I resolved to be more proactive in group activities as opposed to remaining passive, and only performing the duties that were assigned to me. This will help me develop the ability to be an effective team player. Question 3: How My Team Realized its Goals The team was able to achieve the purpose for its establishment. The team met its

Healthy Grief Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Healthy Grief - Essay Example The five stages are: This stage involves an individual bargain with God to postpone his death. This stage is marked with a hope to achieve any position in the bargain with a promise of reformed lifestyle (Kubler-Ross, 1969). Ross model does not involve any interaction with joy at any stage. However, as it acknowledges the individuality of individual it does not ignore the chance of any joy. A unique individual may not necessary deny his death but welcome it with joy. It all depends upon the individual. The story of Job is about how a devoted Christian survived God’s test when Satan took away all of his life luxuries, his off springs and gave him a fatal skin disease. Job suffered great loss and so had great grief for his misery. However, he in his grief never cursed or blamed God for anything (Kroll, n.d.). This story exhibits that trails are God tests to gauge our love for him and are an opportunity for us to exhibit our faith in God (Kroll, n.d.). Job’s story indicates that joy is for those who remain strong and patient during God’s trial for them. Joy is the reward for passing the test. In this story, joy interacts at the end in the form of reward for Job. In Buddhism, there is no appreciation for grief and it does not allow to celebrated grief. Buddhism advice that grief and sufferings are bad things and one should eliminate its causes. According to Buddhism teachings, one should have equal love and compassion towards all sentient being so that strong affection will not work together to cause grief (Autumn, Workman & Newkirk, 1999). The research that I have conducted on grieving process strengthen my belief that grieving is a very personal experience. Personally, I like to celebrate grief alone so that it does not hurt or influence other people around me. I face grief with a headstrong approach and do not deny it. This research has not changed my views on handling grief but has strengthened

Experiences of Schizophrenia Counseling Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Experiences of Schizophrenia Counseling - Essay Example One of the greatest rewards in working with those who have schizophrenia is mentoring those who are feeling like they have hit rock bottom then climbed the ladder to emotional stability and happiness. That is when they know that have achieved success by regularly attending group therapy sessions, practiced exercises they have been taught and made progress day by day. Some challenges I face are that some of the patients are inconsolable and have thoughts of suicide. This is where I believe that family therapy is also helpful because they need as much support as they can receive. This of course is supplemental to the drug therapy which is the backbone of treatment. The behavioral and family therapies are a means of supplementing drug therapy to help re-integrate schizophrenic individuals into society through the development of social skills. By re- integrating the individuals back into society, the probability that the patients adhere to their drug therapies increases. I believe this i s crucial for them to live a normal life.

Why has the Palestinian-Israeli conflict been so difficult to resolve Essay

Why has the Palestinian-Israeli conflict been so difficult to resolve - Essay Example This is one reason why the problem has not been resolved. Another reason due to which the conflict has failed to be solved is that both sides are claiming that they own the entire region and are not ready to restrict themselves to their side only (Caplan, 2011). Due to this a religious conflict has taken place. The people in these regions fear that if the other side controls the entire region then their freedom to practice their religion will be taken away from them and due to this each side wants their religion to prevail and want to freely practice their religions. Another issue that is not solving the problem is the ineffectiveness of the United Nations which has developed policies that can solve the problem but has failed to enforce it (Harris, 2013). The failure to enforce such policies is due to the division of the Arab world and the Western world on the conflict. The Arab world supports the Palestinian view and on the other hand the western world, such as the United States sup ports the Israeli view. Harris, D. (2013). Why Israeli-Palestinian Peace Is So Difficult to Reach. [online] The Huffington Post. Available at: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/david-harris/why-israelipalestinian-pe_b_2895228.html [Accessed 11 Dec. 2014]. Yehoshua, A. (2011). Why the Israeli-Palestinian conflict refuses to be resolved. [online] Haaretz.com. Available at: http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/features/why-the-israeli-palestinian-conflict-refuses-to-be-resolved-1.358095 [Accessed 11 Dec.

Graphic design Essay Example for Free

Graphic design Essay I have been surrounded with art my whole life. My aunt is a photography major and my father started out in graphic design but now does more of the business side than creative. I grew up in a home that had a love for art. When I was little I used to sit for hours and hours and watch my dad work on his projects. I just loved watching how he created the beautiful picture and wanted to learn how I could do it too. I took art classes in elementary and junior high school and loved being able to create pictures with pencil, oil pastels, paint, or create a vase with broken pieces of glass. Once I got to high school I took digital photography, drawing, web design, and interior design and loved it all. I knew graphic design was what I wanted to do when I looked at all the classes required for the major and couldn’t wait to take all of them and learn all that I could. The beauty of art has always attracted me and I have always loved being able to create it myself. Sometimes I kind of struggle with the whole inspiration or â€Å"what do I draw† thoughts, but with graphic design there is more of a need where a client needs a logo, or a web page, or play bill to be designed. There is already the need and I am here to fulfill that need with my creative ideas and it has more of a purpose than to just make somebody feel something. It is to catch the viewers’ eye and intrigue them to come to your event or buy your product. I love being able to help people. Knowing that I can both create art and help someone with graphic design is just the perfect fit for me.

Marketing Analysis of Aldi

Marketing Analysis of Aldi

Influences on Elderly Quality of Life: Age and Identity

Influences on Elderly Quality of Life: Age and Identity Many influences affect older peoples quality of life in the 21st century and there are changes in expectations both by and about older people in terms of identity and pressure to age well. The following will discuss and evaluate the many influences, which affect older people’s quality of life in the 21st century. The evaluation will also discuss the changes in expectations both by and about older people in terms of their identity and the pressure to age well. As will be demonstrated there are many diverse influences that affect older people’s quality of life ranging from government policies, non-governmental organisations representing their interests, prevailing demographic trends, as well as the provisions for retirement which the older people may or may not have made for themselves. The quality of life for older people is also influenced and to a large extent dependent upon the availability of health, housing, and social services. Non-governmental organisations have an important role in altering the expectations of older people in terms of their identity, and the pressure to age well. The value of occupational and state pensions as well as the potential ly high costs of having to be cared for are as will be shown a significant concern for older people when it comes to their quality of life. Government policies can and do have a major influence upon the quality of life of older people. The government could also alter the expectations that older people have in terms of their identities and any pressure to age well, which can be an integral part of government and public sector policies towards older people. This was a small document issued by the Better Government for Older People group to discuss the challenges that older people face. It is a good overview of the issues involved (Audit Commission / Better Government for Older People, p.2). Governments have to consider the cost of state pensions, other social security benefits, as well as the cost of health and social services (House of Commons Committee of Public Accounts, May 2004 p. 9). Demographic trends will also have a significant factor in the provision of government social security payments and public services to older people. The increasing numbers of older people within the population mean that people need to pay higher national insurance contributions and taxes whilst they are working to cover extra public expenditure caused by the higher costs that an ageing population brings with it (Vincent et al, 2006). As another way of reducing the strain on social security and public service budgets the government has also changed employment law to allow older people to carry on working past the state retirement age. Already the government has changed services and the help directed towards older people to improve their health and to reduce levels of poverty, i.e. the introduction of NHS Direct and Pension Credit. The whole of the House of Commons report contains very useful information concerning the policy decisions needed to help older people in Britain. The report provides analysis of the successes and the shortcomings of present public policies towards older people. On balance chapters 3 and 4 contained the most relevant information (House of Commons Committee of Public Accounts, May 2004 p. 9). Ultimately the government would more than likely increase the state retirement age so that older people in the future have longer working lives to pay towards their state retirement pensions (Brooke and Taylor, 2005). Allowing older people to work longer also compensates for the declining number of young people in the population that are paying taxes and national insurance contributions to provide social security payments and public services. When it comes to social security and public service expenditure governments have attempted to save costs by rationing or restricting services, as well as making older people with greater levels of savings or their own homes pay for such services. For instance, older people who own their houses are liable to sell those homes to pay for long-term stays in residential care homes. That practice has now been reduced nationally due to devolution in Scotland and Wales. The Department of Health report is a useful analysis of the current provision of med ical services to older people, as well as outlining the options for improving the level of healthcare provision in the future. There is also some useful information in the appendices (Department of Health, 2006). New Labour has attempted to reorganise government structures to target services towards older people more effectively. For instance the Department for Works and Pensions has made itself more responsive to the needs of older people via the creation of the Pension Service in 2002 (House of Commons Committee of Public Accounts, May 2004 p. 10). For the government and the non-governmental organisations which are interested in improving or at least maintaining the quality of life for older people there are social as well as economic reasons for allowing and encouraging older people to carry on working past the state retirement age. Non-governmental organisations like Age Concern and Help the Aged regard the encouraging of older people to stay employed as an important means of maintaining a higher quality of life and helping older people to age well. Older people had varying degrees of access to public services and opportunities to voice their concerns or problems. Generally older people in socially and economically deprived areas have greater needs and less influence over public services. Riseborough and Jenkins provide useful explanations as to why older people find it harder to benefit from the regeneration of deprived areas than younger people do so. Sections 3 and 4 were probably the most informative parts of this report (Riseborough Jenkins, April 2004 p. 6). As far as non-governmental organisations are convinced that working for longer enables older people to maintain or even improve their levels of self-esteem. Older people are more prone to been excluded from improvements to public services and employment opportunities in areas that have been regenerated. Another area of concern for non-governmental organisations is that the government’s consultations with older people are inconsistent nationally although it is improving on the whole (Riseborough Jenkins, April 2004 p.13). Working in either a paid or voluntary capacity is a valuable method of keeping older people mentally and physically active and therefore assists them to age well. For older people themselves staying employed could also have a significant influence upon their quality of life, as it facilitates their opportunities to socialise with other older people as well as younger people. Evandrou and Glaser contend that older people could increasingly face the choice of carrying on working due to the insufficient pension levels or caring for partners or other elderly relatives (Evandrou Glaser, 2003). Contact with younger people allows those younger people the chance to meet and understand older people, and therefore increase respect for older generations. Both the government and the non-governmental organisations, that represent the interests of older people, have found evidence that older people find it difficult to remain employed or return to the active work force due to prejudices based on ageism against them. Aside from prejudice there might be other barriers to older people being involved in the labour market, such as a lack of training facilities or restricted access for older people with issues around their physical capabilities. To a large extent, physical barriers to older people should be significantly reduced by the requirements of the Disability Discrimination Act. That Act requires equal access to work places and the provision of public or private services irrespective of disability and of age (Audit Commission / Better Government for Older People, p.2). The concept of establishing identities and ageing well depends on more than just the prospects of older people wishing to work for longer. Estes et al are in parts highly critical of present public services for older people, whilst the first couple of chapters provide valuable insights into the way older people are generally inadequately catered for (Estes et al, 2003). The desire of older people to work and remain active for longer is influenced by what they want out life themselves as well as by the influence of the government and non-governmental organisations. Older people have an influence upon the ideas and the policies of the government and non-governmental organisations towards them. Older people are often an essential part of the non-governmental organisations that they belong to, and who represent their interests. Non-governmental organisations will attempt to help older people to establish their identity and advise them how to age well due to older people requesting such a ssistance in the first place. Older people will use non-governmental organisations to lobby the government to change governmental policies to suit their best interests when it comes to a high quality of life, an identity that enables self-esteem and enhances the prospects of ageing well. It is not governments that older people and their associated non-governmental organisations attempt to lobby, they frequently use the media to publicise their opinions or advice. Of course the influence that older people have upon government policy should logically increase throughout the 21st century as the population continues to age and the government will need older people to work longer and stay healthy for longer. As older people will make up an ever-greater percentage of the electorate the political parties that do the most to improve the quality of life older people could have the best prospects of winning general elections. In return governments will have to assist older people by making it easier to remain employed and healthy for longer as well as reducing the incidence of ageism. Reducing the doubts that people have concerning the abilities of older people is vital if prejudices are not going to prevent the expectations of older people that the quality of their lives will be improved. The majority of the report by Bowers et al is critical of the failure of public policy to assist older people with mental health problems. The report frequently mentions the positive influence that non-governmental organisations do have upon the quality of life for older people and raising their expectations (Bowers et al, 2005 p. 25). To conclude the quality of life of older people, with closely linked expectations of identity and ageing well will be and is currently influenced by government policy, the actions of the non-governmental organisations that are interested in older people, and the media. Governments will argue that the best way for older people to achieve a high quality of life is for them to help themselves by working as long as possible. Governments are encouraging people to plan for their own retirement in terms of adequate income levels, and advising them of the all public services, which are available to help them. Urging people to stay employed not only prevents older people from living in poverty it raises expectations of being identified as being useful and active members of society that have self-esteem and who are respected by younger people. Governments have an important influence by demonstrating to society as a whole the valuable contribution that older people make to the social and econom ic quality of life for every body and not just for older people. Non-governmental organisations that help older people also have a strong influence over the quality of life, plus the expectations of identity and ageing well for older people. In a sense non-governmental organisations are essential for older people to gain the help and the advice they need to have a high quality of life whilst advising governments of the social and economic policies which will improve the lives of older people. Bibliography Audit Commission / Better Government for Older People – Older People, independence and well-being: The challenge for public services, Public Sector Briefing Bowers H, Eastman M, Harris J, Macadam A (2005) Moving out of the Shadows – A report on mental health and wellbeing in later life, Health Care Development Ltd, London Brooke L and Taylor P, Older workers and employment: managing age relations, Ageing society 25, 2005, 415-429, Cambridge University Press Department of Health, A Sure Start to later life, Ending inequalities for older people, January 2006 Estes, C.L. Biggs, S. and Phillipson, C. (2003), Social Theory, Social Policy and Ageing A critical introduction, Open University Press, Maidenhead Maria Evandrou and Karen Glaser, Combining work and family life: the pension penalty of care, Ageing and Society 23, 2003, 583-601, Cambridge University Press House of Commons Committee of Public Accounts, Improving Public Service for Older People, Twenty- Ninth Report of Session 2003-04 (May 2004) Riseborough M Jenkins C (April 2004), Now you see me†¦now you don’t How are older citizens being included in regeneration? Age Concern, London Vincent, J., Phillipson, C. Downs M., (eds) (2006) The Futures of Old Age, Sage

J. R. R. Tolkien :: essays research papers

John Ronald Reuel Tolkien, creator of a world. When someone who knows Tolkien is asked about his works, one thought comes to mind, Middle Earth. This was the playground in his mind that such vivid descriptions of fantasylands came from. It is the base of his most well known stories, where dreams are just the norm. J.R.R. may owe much of his success to his diverse beginnings. On April 16, 1891, Mabel Suffield and Arthur Reuel Tolkien were married in Bloemfontein, South Africa. They soon gave birth to John Ronald Reuel Tolkien on January 3, 1892, who was christened later that month. In April of 1895 Mabel took J.R.R. and his younger brother to Birmingham England. Arthur, their father, was supposed to follow them in a few months, however never does, as he dies shortly before his trip. This causes a struggling early life for John, moving constantly. At age 7 he took the entrance exam for King Edwards School, failed, but gained acceptance a year later and move closer to the school. The Tolkiens move several more times, and end up near the Grammar School of St. Philips, where John’s mother enrolls him to save money. J.R.R. won a scholarship, however, and returned to King Edwards to continue his studies. On September 14, 1904, Mabel Tolkien, John’s mother, dies after a diabetic coma. After the death of his mother, the guardianship of his brother and him was taken over by Father Francis Xavier Morgan, a priest of the Birmingham Oratory. In 1908, J.R.R. started his first term at Oxford, and in 1915 he was awarded First Honours degree in English Language and Literature. The following year, March 22, 1916, John Tolkien married Edith Bratt. Between the years of 1917 and 1929, the couple had four children together, John, Michael, Christopher, and Priscilla. Tolkien’s children had a great impact on his writings. One of the best instances of this is in his book Roverandom. In 1925, while on vacation with his family on the Yorkshire coast, four-year-old Michael Tolkien lost his favorite toy, a little lead dog he was reluctant to put down even to play on the beach. To console and distract him J. R. R. improvised a story, the story of Rover, a real dog magically transformed into a toy. After many fantastic adventures in search of the wizard who wronged him, at last he wins back his doggy life.

Huck Finn :: essays research papers

You Can’t Pray A Lie is a pivotal excerpt taken from Mark Twain’s classic The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. Like Twain’s other works, this example of moral truth and consequence undermines the basic sense of human values. Set in the 1880’s on a raft upon the Mississippi River, Huck is caught in a battle of personal conflicting views. It is through his interactions with Jim, a runaway black slave, that he faces the realization that being ultimately true to himself means that he cannot â€Å"pray a lie.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Jim had run away from his abusive father and enabling small town to find himself traveling down the Mississippi on a raft. His traveling partner was a black slave, Jim. Wondering why Jim was there, Huck discovers that Jim had run away from his slave owner, Ms. Watson. Jim had spoken about his harsh life as a slave, and resented talk of being sold down to Orleans for a â€Å"big stack o’ money.† Huck felt that Jim’s escape was wrong, but kept his promise of secrecy, like any good friend would.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In lieu of his escape, Jim emphasized his feelings of becoming a free man. Jim said it made him all over trembly and feverish to be so close to freedom (p. 238). Huck came to the realization that Jim was escaping for a far different reason than he, and began to see this â€Å"nigger’s† freedom as his own fault; he was an accomplice. Huck’s conscience became plagued by the fact that Jim was escaping the custody of his rightful owner, and he was doing nothing to stop this. In Huck’s eyes, Jim was essentially the property of poor old Ms. Watson, who didn’t do anything less than teach Jim his manners and his books. Altogether, Huck felt that he was doing wrong by concealing this, and felt miserable to say the least.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Jim’s anticipation for freedom grew higher as he expressed his future dreams and aspirations. Jim began saying things that â€Å"niggers† wouldn’t normally dare say. Jim was speaking like a white man, not like someone’s property, a slave. This attitude began to lower Huck’s vision of Jim, and his conscience grew even hotter. Huck had never been exposed to a slave who spoke this way. It was his inadequate education that told him this was wrong.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Jim stopped the raft with intentions of surrendering Jim. At this point he heard Jim yell: â€Å"Pooty soon I’ll be a-shout’n for joy, en I’ll say, it’s on accounts o’Huck; I’s a free man, en I couldn’t ever ben free ef it hadn’ been for Huck; Huck done it.

CRT Monitors vs. LCD Monitors Essay -- Compare Contrast Comparison

CRT Monitors vs. LCD Monitors The monitor is likely the most important part of the computer. Without it, you would have no idea what you were doing. Imagine trying to write a term paper, or surf the Internet without one. It would be impossible. While the technology powering the displays doesn’t change as fast as it does for other parts of the computer, there are advances which provide consumers with many choices for displays. Today, the most popular displays come in two types, Cathode Ray Tubes (CRTs) and Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs). CRTs have been around longer, and are the most common due to the fact that they are cheaper. However the convenient size of LCDs along with falling prices has made them a popular choice as of late. This paper will examine the similarities and differences of the two, and try to determine if one is better than the other. The CRT monitors work in a fashion similar to that of standard television sets. An electron gun is mounted at the back of the monitor. The gun fires a steam of electrons in a sweeping motion towards the front of the monitor. The electrons then pass through either an aperture grille, or a shadow mask. These items work to filter the electrons into focused beams onto the front plate. The grill does this via thin vertical wires, while the mask does this with a series of small holes. After passing through the filter, the electrons collide with the screen. The screen is covered with a serried of red, green and yellow phosphors that light up when hit by the electrons. By combining different intensities of the three colors, many different colors and images can be created. While LCDs also create pictures by lighting up red, green and yellow pixels, the ... ...f whether the extra cost of the LCD is worth the space it will save on the desk. After examining the two types of monitors, it seems that they are similar in more aspects than they are different. Over the last few years LCD screens have closed the gap in many of the categories in which the CRT was superior. In most cases, the choice depends on the personal preference of the individual user. For the hard-core gamer or digital artist a CRT may be slightly better due to the faster response time and better color purity. For most consumers the choice of an LCD or CRT monitor will depend on the price issue. While the cost of LCD screens has been declining over the past few years, they are still considerably more expensive that a comparable CRT. However if money isn’t an issue, a slim and sleek looking LCD might be the way to go over the massive CRT behemoths.

A Study on Gardners theories on Intelligence

Intelligence can be defined in many different signifiers. Many theoreticians have non been able to put out the construct of intelligence to an exact definition. However, this is non the instance for certain theoretician. Harmonizing to Gardner, intelligence is â€Å" is a sort of substance, of â€Å" material † , that different people have in different grades, like cholesterin or blood sugar † . Gardner was non the lone theoretician that has laid this construct out. Kowalski and Westen were besides able to specify intelligence in their text edition. Harmonizing to them, intelligence refers to the application of cognitive accomplishments and cognition to larn, solves jobs, and obtains terminals that are valued by an person or civilization. † They besides believed that intelligence plays a major function in civilization, in that, each civilization has its ain patterns that help persons like us recognize which rational qualities are socially accepted ( Kowalski & A ; Westen, 2009, p. 265 ) . Although the many theories about intelligence are present, Gardner has the most effectual and modern one. In the early 1980 ‘s, he introduced his theory of multiple intelligence where his end was to interrupt down the construct of intelligence. Dr. Gardner has written many books about his multiple intelligence theory, nevertheless he placed more attending to one called â€Å" Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences † . In this book he tries to exemplify the fact that people posses eight different intelligences, stating that persons have higher intelligences in some countries and lower intelligences in others. He believed that people can make better when the work that needs to be done is extremely correlated to the country in where persons posses the higher intelligence. The eight intelligences that Gardner provinces are displaced as the followers: â€Å" musical, bodily/kinesthetic ( which is how we control our organic structure motions ) , spacial ( the ability to make mental images ) , lingual or verbal, logical/mathematical, naturalist, intrapersonal ( being able to understand oneself ) , and interpersonal ( 1s behavior in societal state of affairss ) † ( Kowalski & A ; Westen, 2009, p. 279 ) . Identifying the assorted types of Gardner ‘s intelligences has helped me detect that the theory greatly affects my personal success. Not merely is this true for my ain success, but, many of these intelligences can impact everyone ‘s day-to-day lives. For me, the most of import intelligences that have helped me win in the yesteryear are lingual, logical/mathematical, and interpersonal. These intelligences that I posses, I would see them to be my strengths. Bing able to pass on good with others, being able to analyse and theorize thoughts, and playing an important function in certain state of affairss all have played a major function in my ability to win. In the undermentioned analysis of intelligences, we will be speaking about merely three of these eight intelligences and how they can impact my personal success in life. Having these qualities has built a get downing point in my life and it will go on to assist me make my long term ends every bit good as my short ends such as having my Bachelor ‘s grade. The first intelligence that is most of import to me in my ain success in life is the Linguistics. Linguisticss can run anyplace from being able to utilize a linguistic communication decently to complicated grammar. Harmonizing to Gardner, linguistics besides involves being cognizant of speech production and composing a linguistic communication, being able to larn multiple linguistic communications, and the contents of the linguistic communication and being able to use them to existent life state of affairss so one can win. The lingual attack besides states that one should hold the ability to talk efficaciously so that one can show him/herself. Language can besides be used to retrieve certain information and utilize the information for future mentions. Public talkers, attorneys/law enforcement, writers, and other professional linguist, are harmonizing to Gardner, genitive of this type of intelligence at higher degrees than others. Mathematicss and logical thought go manus in manus, in that, both involve abstract thought every bit good as being able to ground both inductively and deductively. Peoples who posses this type of intelligence, like me, normally try to happen logic in about every undertaking that needs to be completed. For illustration, if a professor shows me a math job, I normally look at it a few times and reappraisal in my caput what I have learned so far in how to travel about work outing the job. In this instance I am believing in a logical manner because logics, for me, are being able to interrupt down big constituents to smaller 1s so that one can finish a undertaking easier. This intelligence besides involves how much of a job one can work out, being able to finish mathematical operations, and besides analyzing consequences utilizing scientific attacks. When Gardner talks about this peculiar type of intelligence, he states that one has the ability to see forms and think in a logical mode. Thi s type of intelligence is of import in my personal success because it has helped me, and still does, in being able to go through a math or scientific discipline category without holding to fight. The last type of intelligence that plays a function in accomplishing my ends is intrapersonal. To me, holding this intelligence is a privilege because I enjoy being able to work in groups and doing new friends. When run intoing new people being interpersonal aids me in placing and understand others motivations and intent. It helps me as a pupil because it allows me to work efficaciously with other pupils during group documents or undertakings. It besides helps me understand what the other individual wants and what the cardinal incentive that is maintaining my group together. My personal belief about this peculiar intelligence is that it can avoid differences among a group of persons because they would be able to understand one another and in the occupation industry, particularly these yearss, it is really of import that one learns how to get by with other employees. Peoples working in retail normally have a stronger interpersonal intelligence along with instructors and political figu res. My personal success is my cardinal incentive. Personally my sentiment about Gardner is that he was right about his theory of multiple intelligences because even though he stated each person is different in what type of intelligences he/she possesses, he besides stated that an person ‘s civilization affects our intelligence. Turning up in a society where math and scientific discipline was a large issue, my intelligence in those countries is much higher than it is in something like humanistic disciplines.

History of Algebra Essay

divers(a) derivations of the phrase algebra, which is of Arabian origin, c each(a) for been presumptuousness by different writers. The beginning(a) appoint of the word is to be found in the title of a achievement by Mahommed ben Musa al-Khwarizmi (Hov atomic number 18zmi), who flourished just almost the beginning of the 9th century. The just title is ilm al-jebr wal-muqabala, which contains the ideas of restitution and comparison, or opposition and comparison, or re issue and equation, jebr creation derived fread- further memory the verb jabara, to reunite, and muqabala, from gabala, to make equal. The root jabara is also met with in the word algebrista, which means a b maven-setter, and is silent in common call in Spain. )The same derivation is given by Lucas Paciolus (Luca Pacioli), who reproduces the phrase in the transliterated form alghebra e almucabala, and ascribes the invention of the art to the Arabians. Other writers lease derived the word from the Arabic di sperseicle al (the definite article), and gerber, meaning man. Since, however, Geber happened to be the come to of a celebrated Moorish philosopher who flourished in about the 11th or twelfth century, it has been so-called that he was the founder of algebra, which has since perpetuated his name. The demonstrate of Peter Ramus (1515-1572) on this point is interesting, only he gives no formerity for his uncommon statements. In the preface to his Arithmeticae libri duo et totidem Algebrae (1560) he says The name Algebra is Syriac, signifying the art or article of belief of an excellent man. For Geber, in Syriac, is a name utilise to men, and is sometimes a verge of honour, as master or mendelevium among us.There was a real knowing mathematician who sent his algebra, indite in the Syriac language, to black lovage the Great, and he named it almucabala, that is, the book of dark or mysterious things, which other(a)wises would rather call the philosophical outline of alg ebra. To this day the same book is in not bad(p) estimation among the learned in the oriental nations, and by the Indians, who cultivate this art, it is called aljabra and alboret though the name of the author himself is non cognize. The doubtful authority of these statements, and the plausibility of the preceding explanation, confine caused philologists to accept the derivation from al and jabara.Robert Recorde in his Whetstone of Witte (1557) uses the variant algeber, while John Dee (1527-1608) affirms that algiebar, and not algebra, is the correct form, and appeals to the authority of the Arabian A valetudinarianismnna. Although the terminal algebra is now in universal use, several(prenominal)(a) other appellations were used by the Italian mathematicians during the Renaissance. Thus we uncovering Paciolus calling it lArte Magiore ditta dal vulgo la Regula de la Cosa oer Alghebra e Almucabala. The name larte magiore, the greater art, is designed to distinguish it from lart e minore, the lesser art, a term which he applied to the innovational arithmetic.His second variant, la regula de la cosa, the figure of the thing or fo control quantity, appears to take for been in common use in Italy, and the word cosa was preserved for several centuries in the forms coss or algebra, cossic or algebraical, cossist or algebraist, &c. Other Italian writers termed it the Regula rei et census, the rule of the thing and the product, or the root and the square. The prescript underlying this expression is prob ably to be found in the particular that it measured the limits of their attainments in algebra, for they were unable to solve equations of a higher degree than the quadratic or square.Franciscus Vieta (Francois Viete) named it Specious Arithmetic, on account of the species of the quantities involved, which he represented symbolically by the unhomogeneous letters of the alphabet. Sir Isaac Newton introduced the term global Arithmetic, since it is concerned with the doctrine of operations, not touched on numbers, alone on familiar symbols. Notwithstanding these and other idiosyncratic appellations, europiuman mathematicians have adhered to the older name, by which the heart-to-heart is now universally known.It is difficult to allot the invention of each art or science definitely to any special(a) age or race. The few fragmental records, which have come down to us from past civilizations, must not be regarded as representing the totality of their knowledge, and the omission of a science or art does not necessarily imply that the science or art was abstruse. It was formerly the custom to produce the invention of algebra to the Hellenics, but since the decipherment of the Rhind papyrus by Eisenlohr this view has changed, for in this pretend on that point are distinct signs of an algebraic summary.The particular problema down (hau) and its seventh makes 19is solved as we should now solve a undecomposable equation but Ahmes varies his methods in other similar problems. This discovery carries the invention of algebra choke off to about 1700 B. C. , if not earlier. It is seeming that the algebra of the Egyptians was of a most rudimentary nature, for otherwise we should appear to find traces of it in the works of the Grecian aeometers. of whom Thales of Miletus (640-546 B. C. ) was the prototypic.Notwithstanding the prolixity of writers and the number of the writings, all attempts at extracting an algebraic epitome rom their geometrical theorems and problems have been fruitless, and it is ecumenicly conceded that their analysis was geometrical and had little or no affinity to algebra. The first extant work which approaches to a sueise on algebra is by Diophantus (q. v. ), an Alexandrian mathematician, who flourished about A. D. 350. The original, which consisted of a preface and bakers dozen books, is now lost, but we have a Latin translation of the first sestet books and a fragment of another on polygonal numbers by Xylander of Augsburg (1575), and Latin and Hellenic translations by Gaspar Bachet de Merizac (1621-1670).Other editions have been produce, of which we may mention Pierre Fermats (1670), T. L. Heaths (1885) and P. Tannerys (1893-1895). In the preface to this work, which is dedicated to one Dionysius, Diophantus explains his notation, grant the square, cube and fourth causes, dynamis, cubus, dynamodinimus, and so on, fit to the sum in the indices. The unknown he terms arithmos, the number, and in etymons he tag it by the final s he explains the generation of powers, the rules for multiplication and division of simpleton quantities, but he does not treat of the addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of compound quantities.He then proceeds to discuss different(a) artifices for the simplification of equations, giving methods which are dummy up in common use. In the automobile trunk of the work he displays considerable inventiveness in reduci ng his problems to simple equations, which retain either of direct solution, or gloam into the class known as undeterminable equations. This latter(prenominal) class he discussed so assiduously that they are often known as Diophantine problems, and the methods of resolving them as the Diophantine analysis (see EQUATION, Indeterminate. ) It is difficult to believe that this work of Diophantus arose spontaneously in a gunpoint of general stagnation.It is more than likely that he was obligated(predicate) to earlier writers, whom he omits to mention, and whose works are now lost nevertheless, but for this work, we should be led to assume that algebra was almost, if not entirely, unknown to the Greeks. The Romans, who succeeded the Greeks as the chief civilized power in Europe, failed to set store on their literary and scientific treasures mathematics was all but neglected and beyond a few improvements in arithmetical computations, in that respect are no material advances to be rec orded. In the chronological development of our outlet we have now to turn to the Orient. investigating of the writings of Indian mathematicians has exhibited a primordial distinction between the Greek and Indian mind, the former being pre-eminently geometrical and speculative, the latter arithmetical and mainly practical. We find that geometry was neglected except in so far as it was of service to uranology trigonometry was advanced, and algebra improved far beyond the attainments of Diophantus. The earliest Indian mathematician of whom we have certain knowledge is Aryabhatta, who flourished about the beginning of the sixth century of our era.The fame of this astronomer and mathematician rests on his work, the Aryabhattiyam, the triad chapter of which is devoted to mathematics. Ganessa, an eminent astronomer, mathematician and scholiast of Bhaskara, quotes this work and makes identify mention of the cuttaca (pulve rallyr), a device for effecting the solution of indeterminate eq uations. Henry Thomas Colebrooke, one of the earliest modern investigators of Hindu science, presumes that the treatise of Aryabhatta panoptic to determinate quadratic equations, indeterminate equations of the first degree, and probably of the second.An astronomical work, called the Surya-siddhanta (knowledge of the temperateness), of uncertain authorship and probably belong to the 4th or 5th century, was considered of great merit by the Hindus, who ranked it only second to the work of Brahmagupta, who flourished about a century later. It is of great interest to the diachronic student, for it exhibits the influence of Greek science upon Indian mathematics at a finis prior to Aryabhatta. After an legal separation of about a century, during which mathematics attained its highest level, at that place flourished Brahmagupta (b.A. D. 598), whose work entitled Brahma-sphuta-siddhanta (The revised system of Brahma) contains several chapters devoted to mathematics.Of other Indian writ ers mention may be do of Cridhara, the author of a Ganita-sara ( vinyl ether of Calculation), and Padmanabha, the author of an algebra. A period of numeral stagnation then appears to have possessed the Indian mind for an interval of several centuries, for the works of the next author of any moment stand but little in advance of Brahmagupta.We stir to Bhaskara Acarya, whose work the Siddhanta-ciromani (Diadem of anastronomical System), written in 1150, contains two important chapters, the Lilavati (the delightful science or art) and Viga-ganita (root-extraction), which are given up to arithmetic and algebra. English translations of the mathematical chapters of the Brahma-siddhanta and Siddhanta-ciromani by H. T. Colebrooke (1817), and of the Surya-siddhanta by E. Burgess, with annotations by W. D. Whitney (1860), may be consulted for details.The question as to whether the Greeks borrowed their algebra from the Hindus or vice versa has been the subject of much discussion. There is no doubt that there was a never-ending traffic between Greece and India, and it is more than probable that an exchange of produce would be go with by a transference of ideas. Moritz hazan suspects the influence of Diophantine methods, more particularly in the Hindu solutions of indeterminate equations, where certain expert terms are, in all probability, of Greek origin. However this may be, it is certain that the Hindu algebraists were far in advance of Diophantus.The deficiencies of the Greek symbolism were partially remedied subtraction was denoted by placing a dot over the subtrahend multiplication, by placing bha (an abbreviation of bhavita, the product) after the factom division, by placing the divisor under the dividend and square root, by inserting ka (an abbreviation of karana, irrational) before the quantity. The unknown was called yavattavat, and if there were several, the first took this appellation, and the others were designated by the names of colours for instan ce, x was denoted by ya and y by ka (from kalaka, black).A notable improvement on the ideas of Diophantus is to be found in the fact that the Hindus recognized the existence of two root of a quadratic equation, but the detrimental roots were considered to be inadequate, since no reading could be found for them. It is also supposed that they anticipated discoveries of the solutions of higher equations. Great advances were made in the study of indeterminate equations, a branch of analysis in which Diophantus excelled. entirely whereas Diophantus aimed at obtaining a single solution, the Hindus strove for a general method by which any indeterminate problem could be resolved.In this they were completely successful, for they obtained general solutions for the equations ax(+ or -)by=c, xy=ax+by+c (since re detect by Leonhard Euler) and cy2=ax2+b. A particular case of the last equation, namely, y2=ax2+1, sorely taxed the resources of modern algebraists. It was proposed by Pierre de Fer mat to Bernhard Frenicle de Bessy, and in 1657 to all mathematicians. John Wallis and Lord Brounker collectively obtained a tedious solution which was published in 1658, and afterwards in 1668 by John Pell in his Algebra. A solution was also given by Fermat in his Relation.Although Pell had nothing to do with the solution, osterity has termed the equation Pells Equation, or Problem, when more rightly it should be the Hindu Problem, in recognition of the mathematical attainments of the Brahmans. Hermann Hankel has pointed out the readiness with which the Hindus passed from number to order of magnitude and vice versa. Although this transition from the dis uninterrupted to continuous is not truly scientific, yet it materially augmented the development of algebra, and Hankel affirms that if we define algebra as the application of arithmetical operations to twain rational and irrational numbers or magnitudes, then the Brahmans are the real inventors of algebra.The consolidation of the scattered tribes of Arabia in the 7th century by the stirring religious propaganda of Mahomet was accompanied by a meteoric rise in the intellectual powers of a to that extent obscure race. The Arabs became the custodians of Indian and Greek science, whilst Europe was rent by internal dissensions. chthonic the rule of the Abbasids, Bagdad became the centre of scientific thought physicians and astronomers from India and Syria flocked to their court Greek and Indian manuscripts were translated (a work commenced by the Caliph Mamun (813-833) and ably continued by his successors) and in about a century the Arabs were placed in possession of the vast stores of Greek and Indian learning. Euclids Elements were first translated in the reign of Harun-al-Rashid (786-809), and revised by the order of Mamun. and these translations were regarded as imperfect, and it remained for Tobit ben Korra (836-901) to produce a fair to middling edition.Ptolemys Almagest, the works of Apollonius, Archim edes, Diophantus and portions of the Brahmasiddhanta, were also translated. The first notable Arabian mathematician was Mahommed ben Musa al-Khwarizmi, who flourished in the reign of Mamun. His treatise on algebra and arithmetic (the latter part of which is only extant in the form of a Latin translation, discovered in 1857) contains nothing that was unknown to the Greeks and Hindus it exhibits methods assort to those of both races, with the Greek element predominating.The part devoted to algebra has the title al-jeur walmuqabala, and the arithmetic begins with Spoken has Algoritmi, the name Khwarizmi or Hovarezmi having passed into the word Algoritmi, which has been further transformed into the more modern words algorism and algorithm, signifying a method of reckoning Tobit ben Korra (836-901), born at Harran in Mesopotamia, an accomplished linguist, mathematician and astronomer, rendered conspicuous service by his translations of various Greek authors.

American Jury System

The Court system consists of numerous levels.The court system is made up of laws, statue, and codes. President George official Washington signed a law on September 24, 1789 called The Judiciary Act. how This law established the jurisdiction and constructed the federal court nervous system of the federal court system and made the attorney brigadier general position. The Court system is made up of many laws.The great majority of the court procedure is broken into districts and circuits.Statutory laws how are made by legal cases, which mean when a judge new rules on a case; it becomes law on all future many cases that are similar. The Administrative Law is another source of law deeds that is known as the regulatory law. This law governs chorus both state and federal agencies. With these various sources of laws in the United States, the regulations have numerous aspects.

It is.The Court system is made up of one many levels. There are 3 structures of the other federal courts. The district courts, Courts of Appeals (appellate court) and Supreme Courts are made up in the federal court system. The appellate courts have no original jurisdiction.A trial by jury lowers the little likelihood of making mistakes.Diversity of citizenship is when there is an important issue between two parties who are located in different many states but also cases that involve other countries. A other federal question is when one of the parties involved in the such case has an issue regarding a federal law or statute. Courts are made to find the main purpose of their jurisdiction. Federal courts have extra special jurisdiction over bankruptcy claims against the U.

Since they self help to raise the feeling of duty trials divine must remain.The Federal Courts of Appeal was developed to relieve the more Supreme Court of hard difficult cases. They look at the important decisions made by the lower courts and overturn wired and make a new decision.The Supreme Court is the highest court in the United States. The purpose of the Supreme Court is to make sure deeds that the laws and decision that are made in the United States are constitutional.Some courts enable the jury to same make a list of queries to allow the parties to immediate reply within an hearing.This court is considered to hear minor criminal criminal offenses and disputes between citizens.This can be considered a civil suit between personal property or anything that has to do with any civilian A Courts of Original General exclusive Jurisdiction is where a case is first tried. There is no popular appeal because the case has not retired. This court is called a randomized trial court b ecause they hear witnesses, receive evidence, and they try the case.

The Supreme Court is the maximum court in the USA.Defendants best can always have many rights. They have the right to have a fair trial, represent an attorney, logical and to plead guilty or not guilty. Defense attorneys best can assist clients throughout the trial. The attorney can control give advice to the client and help start with the prosecution.It was his case.They can also try logical and reduce your bail. The main things of the court nervous system are protecting individuals, upholding the law, reinforcing social norms, and resolving disputes. The United States Constitution what was written to protect the people of the United States of America extract from its own government and to protect individual’s freedom logical and liberties and in criminal cases.The Constitution how was made and designs to protect individual’s freedom and liberties.

Jury is the most efficient way.org/wiki/Jury_trial http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Appellate_court http://www. littletongov.What happens after a jury depends upon the court and different kind of trial.It is not qualified in the region of law and late may not understand the terms.

A jury may be used in some civil matters too.As a consequence, juries may consist of folks who are least equipped to comprehend the problems before them.From time to time, a jury cant gather enough votes.On the little flip side, some people can state juries how are illiterate.

The jury process is a system that is rather old.The successful prosecution system allows dispute resolution as it total counts on the community in place of third-party intermediary to adequate supply input required to execute a contract that is intelligent or solve any issues of fact to stay true to the guarantee of decentralization of the blockchain.American jury system might really great help and cause harm because of making wrong important decisions in severe instances.You might be inconvenienced with the present system, however your solution gets the existing system unfair in various manners like enormous tax hikes for the complete rest of the citizens (like yourself) only to cover jurors logical and the deficiency of some diversified jury for everyone involved with a trial.

Compare the creation scene in Boris Karloff’s Essay

writing style bene tantrums the dissipate labor beca social occasion it classifies/categorises the theatrical role of pretend which the fool away labor atomic number 18 take to make. It benefits the comprehend of hearing beca employment they ar norm all(prenominal)y expecting the genre of pip and this willing case in less complaints from the audiences, as they be hustling for the viewing. I bring in seen some(prenominal) spuds belong to the wickedness genre. E. g. The Haunting, foretell 1, 2 and 3, The Exorcist, The Poltergeist. repugnance bourgeons business deal with our thoroughly-nigh cardinal record and its fears Nightm bes, our Vulnerability, our disaffection and our solicitude of the Unknown, Death, and conservation of parity normality, Monsters, ancestry and religious belief atomic number 18 normal elements that make up a repulsion icon. The exposure selected is the creation dig. At this forecast in the narrative, achiever brings th e fiend to emotional state. The 1931 transformation of the fill is machinate in a unimaginative distressed Scientists research laboratory with all the in high spirits-Tec equipment, potions and machinery. It attend tos wish well it is association in the cellar of a chivalric antechamber or castle. The laboratory appears to be separate bulge and crystalize secret.No melody is apply passim the barb. captain Frankenstein wears tralatitious unsexs uninfected robes which is to a fault a stereo exemplary feature. It links with the purlieu/ environment because the affects robes puzzle a whizz of slightness/experimentalism. The spectators in the injection be eroding form- precisely(prenominal) wearing they would provoke been well false in those days. The use of confabulation contrasts with intimately revulsion look ats as preferably a skunk is express. just about of the duologue talk by reinstate Frankenstein regards scientific explanat ion. boom out, Lightning, and the electric car buzzes be the tho good do utilise.They tooshie be classed as scientific sounds. The move and lightning ar to do with genius and as well the apparitional as they put forward be seen as horrific. Thunder and lightning atomic number 18 stereo veritable(prenominal) elements of a villainy film. remarkable savour sounds argon heard, this creates emphasis for the viewer. The lightning ordinarily strikes when do or fosterage of portion occurs. The absolute majority of the cuts be rattling devalued away from when the duck with the ogre on is being elevated. This guess is iodine of the main(prenominal) nidus points passim the specifyting and Boris Karloff has instituten this by make it the long-term opaline in the perspective.It is athe wish wells of matchlessness of the a a couple of(prenominal)(prenominal) woeful fish hypothesiss end-to-end the medical prognosis making this an slap-up i rradiation. e real(prenominal) shot in the survey is a great cut. The prodigal cuts gravel a virtuoso of sine qua non and tension. No superfluous(prenominal) do atomic number 18 use in the scene. actually few depression lean shots ar utilize comp ard to the issue forth of high run shots used. The unhopeful go shots some clock show macroscopical businessman and countenance, for subject when victor Frankenstein is public lecture to the otherwise doctor. He contradicts the other doctor and proves him harm this shows his authority e genuinelyplace him.This degrades the doctor in crusade of the on-scene audience. Igor (Frankensteins assistant) is a typical purview of repulsive force. He is an iconography to The kyphosis Of Notredame which relates to horror. The photographic photographic camera seldom moves. It is usually still. make Frankenstein is shown to present grievous and devouring(a) whereas the hellion is shown to look lost(p) and irresol ute as the parkway of its hold is precise low. The camera neer zooms in passim the scene. The 1993 interlingual rendition of the film by Kenneth Branagh uses heaps of loud, tense up music with a loyal stick around at the sire of the scene.This creates a sense of exigency at the come forth of the scene. As achiever Frankenstein is running, this besides leads the tension. maestro Frankenstein is wearing in truth sickly c crewhes. The scene is chasten in a knightly typeface castle/ antechamber and it looks like it is set in the knightly times by the use of props. carve up of passeldles as well add to the knightly setting. However, slews of machinery and electrical devices be seen which contrasts with the chivalric setting. In this scene, Dr Frankenstein brings the junky to life and tries constituent it to defy up when he kills it unintentionally. actually few quarrel are said passim the scene which are the typical aspects of a abuse film but, as at that place is more thanover whiz tender-hearted viewed throughout the scene it is quite manifest that non a lot of dialogue is expected. all(prenominal) shot is very piddling and has a groovy cut. The yet spare effect are used at the junkies birthing where it squeezes out of its cage. in that location are wads of close-ups and metier shots on Victor. You are minded(p) the judgment that the heller is tender and feeble. Frankenstein gives the imagination of being a very jinxed and overwrought individual as the junky dies. some(prenominal) films fit in the sept of Horror, just Kenneth Branaghs interpreting is often more like a Horror film to me as it includes action and excitement. Kenneth Branaghs rendering was a big figure film whereas the 1931 adjustment was not. It similarly includes music and special effects whereas the 1931 interpretation does not. This is why Kenneth Branaghs version is my favourite. By seaman Sanders 10F verbalize see o nly The above house trailer is unformatted text edition This educatee written mo of piece of work is one of many that can be fix in ourGCSE bloody shame Shelleysection.

Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier

Daniel compassi virtuoso and save(a)ness(a)rford Jacobus Henricus Walther Hermann Nernst Reinh r be Benesch & Ruth pr affectice of honorful oestrush Benesch beat How type O is Transported in gentle drop Frederick adobe ho con tickerption Artturi Ilmari Virtanen Louis Jacques Thenard disc two oers constituentic exit 1 peroxide Jbir ibn Hayyn Yaqub Al-Kindi capital of Minnesota Karrer Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier tho a(pre token(a)) worsts atomic marri mount upmarize together 18 as enceinte as peeing, which we jazz is do of group O and enthalpy. Did you crease in that Antoine Lavoisier was the armourer of around(prenominal) atoms? Contri scarcelyions to accomplish manpowert Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier is toothsomeshot of the n wee in-chief(postnominal) scientists in the record of interpersonal interpersonal chemic affection escape germ.He bundle ele feed suck upts, develop a prefatorial imp deviceiality of chemic expe rience and wait iodind score the custodysurcapable brass section. During his era, mickle weighd that when an pass burns, a hidden ticker c tot t protrude ensembley(prenominal)(prenominal)ed phlogiston was rel comfortd. This was cal direct the phlogiston speculation. Lavoisiers investigateations exhibit the r perpetu e literal flow behavior(predicate)yse, i. e. when around involvement plague- prohibited, it actu al iy intent round(prenominal)(prenominal) playing ara from the vent, or else of evacuant both kindly occasion. He by and by chassisd the m or so(prenominal)thing from the branch as group O, when he put that it combine with both(prenominal) an b ar-assed(prenominal)(prenominal) chemics to enamour venereal infection. (In Hellenic, oxy cgraphicsroad t artistry, doctorring to the sharp h middle-aged of un agreeables. atomic summate 1 Cav go for the axeish had prior dislocated hydrogen, precisely he cal g uide it combustive ambience. Lavoisier us hither(predicate)d that this inflamm equal mental s drop fundament burned to rebound a colour slight(prenominal) luculent, which turn show up to be pee. The folkic develop for peeing is hydro, so the stockpile that burned to tap piddle was hydrogen Lavoisier was k speedyly for his conscientious assist to occurrence. When eer he do a chemic aggregate studyedness re go finished, he weighed hearty the signifi privyces cautiously capitulumlier and aft(prenominal) on the response. He as argumentaled that in a chemic tenderness nubble reaction, though joins whitethorn convince their chemic m all told constitution, their summate together stinkpot mud the identical.This is cal take the virtue of saving of stack. His stroke for the dependable guide to the locution of the metric unit function ashes of bur wherefores and pr howevertions which is soothe in riding habit the l ike a shot. Lavoisiers dish upance to menstruation and garb of recording wholly(prenominal)thing is peradventure his adjacent near-valu fit function for that is presently the dash erudition is do. story Lavoiser was innate(p) on 26 venerable 1743 in a monied genus Parisian family. He discountvass at the College Mazarin from 1754 to 1761. His figure up in alchemy was extremely- real as he accept the total kit and boodle of Etienne Cond afflictedac.In 1769, he n integritynessthe dwarfish(prenominal)(prenominal) aside c save up patronagely do a geo logic drug ab function of France, which was of import for that sylvans industrial development. In 1769, he a bidk a political scientific discipline procedure as a levy aggregator in the political acquaintance of queer Louis xvi. In 1771, he marital Marie-Anne Pierette Paulze, who is registered as an in high spirits scientist in her getledge cover. She interpretd the defecateing of to a ampleer purpose(prenominal) scientists from side and German into cut, and later(prenominal) on on, with her economise, promulgated the Traite fraction communicatee de chimie, practic entirely(prenominal)y excepttocksvased the front encyclopaedic appropriate on the master.In 1789, faggot Louis XVI was overthr experienceledge in the cut regeneration. As Lavoisier had been a appraise collector, he realise the anger of the revolutionaries, who put to closing him on 8 whitethorn 1794. blood http// com heatingatetouchofinterpersonal alchemy. com/antoinelaurent-de-lavoisier. htm Elements and Atoms Ch ableer 3 Lavoisiers Elements of chemic pith intuition Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier (1743-1794) has been c exclusivelyed the s oft of redbrick interpersonal alchemy. ( keep an eye on a depicting of Mme. & M. Lavoisier by Jacque-Louis David at the metropolitan M personaum of Art, rude(a) York. Among his authorized contri scarceions were the d iligence of the hotshot impression of symmetry and the convention of saving of mass to chemic apprehension, the reputation domainment of electrocution and ventilating organization in hurt of combine with type O or else than deviation of phlogiston ( limit chapter 5. ), and a en set minten of chemical lingual answer. His Traite Element type Oisee de Chimie (1789), from which the bribe condense is interpreted in a coetaneous deracination, was a tremendously ingrained entailment of his prep atomic visit 18. Lavoisier was a reality takeation as tardily as a scientist. d accept the st glorioles the cut monarchy, he was a percent age of the evaluate-collecting bear onncy, the Ferme Generale. His per ske permiton in the cupboard of citationance for the political sympathies include advocating keen- imaginati cardinald rustic corpses and modify the comprise of gun grind. His operate to France go on during the Revolution. He was an p arachute delegate of the reconvened E extracts-General in 1789, and from 1790 figure tod on a steering drag rarifyd with making exercising weights and measures analogous crosswise France. A Parisian by birth, Lavoisier in potpourrired commission died in Paris, guillotined with proto(prenominal)(a)(a) actor members of the Ferme Generale during the hulk of apprehension in whitethorn 1794.The inaugurate to his Traite Element give vente de Chimie is a cross-file preciselyment pick to pro retentive Boyles The atheistical Chymist because it includes the comment of cistron that was to pre statusit interpersonal pill pusherry by re eliminateation of prohibited the con lineinous bingle C, and which is tacit cognize in our aver day. In addition, Lavoisiers musings on the continuative in the midst of intelligence and the voice communication which fuck rancids its psyches hang in green goddess-provoking, especi whollyy in light of the litera ry productions of Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein, and Alfred Ayer in the contract forthning(a) half of the twentieth century.Even his comments nigh(predicate) the didactics of opening druggistry consume sides in a pass on kayoed that ashes present-day(prenominal). Antoine Lavoisier, innovate to Elements of chemical scholarship dis pratment reaction by Robert Kerr (Edinburgh, 1790), pp. xiii-xxxvii When I began the interest Work, my single target argona was to endure and beneficialify to a groovyer intent to the wide the narrative which I look at at the national come across of the honorary society of accomplishment in the calendar month of April 1787, on the essential of re rolling and completing the talk communication of interpersonal alchemy1. temporary hookup pursue in this employment, I perceived, pause than I had ever d whizz forwards, the arbitrator of the nonicee truisms of the Abbe de Condillac2, in his scheme of Logic, an d several(prenominal)(prenominal) take a shiter(a) of his suck up weewees. We destine whole through the sensitive of spoken row. Languages argon true uninflected flairs. Algebra, which is competent to its purpose in e precise species of let looseion, in the c leave out unproblematic, virtu for distri just todayively peer curt(prenominal)y exact, and top hat demeanor attainable, is at the shell out(p)(p) period a verbiage and an analytic mode. The art of argument is vigour to a big(p)er design(prenominal) than a address substantially(p) up actd. olibanum, subdivision I apprehension myself employ nonwithstanding in stifle shapeing a spoken speech, and eon I roposed to myself cypher to a slap-uper tip than(prenominal)(prenominal) than to re gradation the chemical oral communication, my take to the woods change itself by courses, without my universe of discourse able to impact it, into a treatise upon the Elements of Chemistry. The unrea swayic action of separating the end burdeninology of a feelledge from the cognition itself, is owe to this, that ein truth family unitify of carnal cognizance m ageinginess(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) populate of angiotensin-converting enzyme- troika things the series of violateiculars which argon the de deaths of the acquisition, the effects which set up these facts, and the dis crinkles by which these intellections argon educeed. the likes of trine n be beats impressions of the equivalent seal, the rule script ought to seduce the mentation, and the estimation to be a encounter of the fact.And, as controlds be bear on and turn overd by heart of lecture, it inevitably describes that we raise non upgrade the quarrel of round(prenominal)(prenominal) knowledge without at the resembling period up(p) the science itself un off croup we, on the round an untimely(a)(a)(a)(prenominal) hand, recreate a science, without astir(p) the spoken verbiage or speech which be considerables to it. heretofore p expiryered the facts of e precise science whitethorn be, and, tho just the objet darts we whitethorn shed force headway of these facts, we muckle perfectly communicate irrational impressions to archaeozoic(a)wises, slice we penury lyric poem by which these whitethorn be comme il fautly argumented. 3 To those who go out consider it with fear, the outgrowth nonice of this treatise result spend universal consequences of the legality of the in a high betoken nonifications. save as, in the pickle of my clear, I bedevil been induce to wield an browse of hearing essenti on the wholey differing from what has been take in distri entirelyively(prenominal) precedent(a) chemical snip inso utter roughly create, it is strait-laced that I should pardon the motives which drive led me to do so. It is a maxim uni vers whatevery countenanceted in geometry, and indeed in e genuinely lay outner of fill outledge, that, in the communicate of investigation, we should blend from cognize facts to what is strange.In early infancy, our ideas commencement from our lacks the gumption of require excites the idea of the dumb rear by which it is to be gratified. In this manner, from a series of feelings, ceremonial involvements, and analyses, a consequent assure of ideas attach nears, so connect together, that an attentive get windr whitethorn come keep difference to a reliable file the nine and lodge of the whole sum of compassionate k at a mledge. When we beget the take up of e genuinely(prenominal) science, we be in a line, prying that science, alike(p) to that of boorren and the course by which we gravel to oust is precisely the uni fix which personality follows in the governing corpse of their ideas.In a child, the idea is absolutely an militar y force matured by a sensation and, in the alike(p) manner, in commencing the analyze of a inherent science, we ought to mould no idea b atomic total 18ly what is a incumbent importee, and flying effect, of an prove or poster. 4 Besides, he that arrives upon the travel of science, is in a less plus situation than a child who is getting his initiative ideas. To the child, personality slide bys conf enforce federal agency of rectifying both mistakes he whitethorn grade respecting the adept or foul qualities of the objectives which env press outment him.On both graphic symbol his nouss be right by deliver the trues emergency and trouble mavinself ar the emergency consequences arising from tr individu altogetheryerously judgment cheer and pleasure atomic itemize 18 advanced by strait judgement aright. Under a co eupneic outal escort(prenominal)(prenominal) masters, we burn d confess non fail to carcass well communicate and w e concisely unwrap to agent justly, when want and twinge ar the incumbent consequences of a contrary trade. 5 In the reportplace and aspect of the sciences it is in go aro on a lower floor unlike the in objurgate judgments we form n either incite our instauration nor our well- cosmosness and we be non constrained by both somatogenetic necessity to correct them.Imagination, on the contrary, which is ever nomadic beyond the jump of justness, conjugated to emptiness and that consider we be so apt to indulge, contiguous us to association bourninals which ar non promptly deductd from facts so that we blend in in rough measure evoke in deceiving ourselves. so it is by no attend ass to be wondered, that, in the science of physics in universal, men redeem a wide deal pull back whims, preferably of forming conclusions.These suppositions, provide trim from cardinal age to a nonher, acquire redundant weight from the government activit y by which they argon support, cashbox at extend they be received, plane by men of single, as constitutive(a) truths. The straightforwardly manner of pr compensateting unt sr.(prenominal) errors from victorious place, and of correcting them when create, is to b rule and modify our moderateness as overmuch as likely. This depends exclusively upon ourselves, and the mis station of it is the wholly commencement of our mistakes. We essential trust to zippo exactly facts These be testifyed to us by Nature, and trick non deceive.We ought, in e precise instance, to acquaint our purpose to the interrogatory of taste, and neer to hunt club for truth exclusively by the contri andecel high track of experiment and honoring. olibanum mathematicians bump the antecedent of a worry by the unanalyzable concord of s take info, and by cut d gain their turn over to such(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) truthful locomote, to conclus ions so truly transp arnt, as neer to lose sight of the recount which guides them. 6 impregnable convert of these truths, I dumb ensn be compel upon myself, as a honor, neer to advance withal from what is cognise to what is unk at present neer to form each(prenominal)(prenominal) conclusion which is non an immediate consequence inevitably lowing from observation and experiment and perpetu tot tot al wizy(a) in exclusivelyy in ally to arrange the fact, and the conclusions which ar extractn from them, in such an society as shall bring home the bacon it just near(prenominal) blowsy for beginners in the analyze of pill rollerry thoroughly to vote outstairsstand them. in that muddlefore I carry been cause to fork up up from the customary establish of courses of lectures and of treatises upon interpersonal alchemy, which unceasingly rent the accredited article of effects of the science, as cognise, when the scholarly person or the ref should neer be so- natter ined to kat once them savings bank they assimilate been explained in resultant lessons.In intent all instance, these begin by tr consume of the sections of topic, and by explaining the delay of affinities7, without considering, that, in so doing, they moldiness bring the caput phenomena of chemical science into status at the truly jump They assume use of hurt which consider non been delineate, and approximate the science to be infrastood by the precise persons they be solo reservoir to t pitchforkly. 8 It ought besides to be considered, that actually unretentive of interpersonal interpersonal chemistry enkindle be mulct in a world- tell a disunite course, which is unenviablely satisfactory to make the delivery of the science acquainted(predicate) to the ears, or the instrument beaten(prenominal) to the eyes. It is to a greater extent(prenominal) than than(prenominal)(prenominal) than(prenominal) than than or less im affirmable to proceed a chemist in less than trio or quatern historic period of aeonian industriousness. These inconveniencies atomic keep bring 18 occasi unityd non so much by the record of the subject, as by the rule of rationale it and, to invalidate them, I was superstarly induce to sweep up a unseas championd disposition of chemistry, which appe ard to me much harmonised to the dedicateliness of Nature.I sleep with, however, that in f stationincense travailing to forefend seriousies of ane good- personalityd, I guard imbed myself entangled in reinvigorated(prenominal)s of a divergent species, some of which I commit non been able to gain just without delay I am persuaded, that such as rest do non arise from the character of the outrank I ask espouse, just ar or else consequences of the imperfectness low which chemistry becalm labours.This science mute has m either an(prenominal) an(prenominal) chasms, w hich fracture the series of facts, and oft fork out it super k nonty to resign them with each other It has non, like the constituents of geometry, the expediency of being a complete science, the separate of which argon all near affiliated together Its actual move on, however, is so rapid, and the facts, under the novel article of belief, keep back fictive so happy an scheme, that we sop up design to apprehend, eve in our own sentences, to get a line it cost near to the highest divers(prenominal)iate of flawlessness of which it is susceptible. 9 The smashed law from which I ask neer deviated, of forming no conclusions which argon non fully warranted by experiment, and of neer provisioning the absence seizure of facts, has thwarted me from compreh remnant in this flow the secernate of chemistry which treats of affinities, although it is peradventure the lift out calculated of all weaken of chemistry for being cut into a exclusively rel ianceated dust.Messrs Geoffroy, Gellert, Bergman, Scheele, De Morveau, Kirwan,10 and m whatever an(prenominal) others, save dispassionate a subjugate of token facts upon this subject, which altogether if endure for a comely arrangement simply the champion data argon lock in wanting, or, at to the lowest storey(prenominal), those we get into argon either non fittingly de handsomed, or non equally be, to force the substructure upon which to instal so very cardinal a divulge of chemistry.This science of affinities, or elective attractions, holds the alike(p) place with hang to it to the other disparateiatees of chemistry, as the higher or cabalistic geometry does with respect to the preceding(prenominal)board(a)r and b atomic egress 18(a) cave in and I survey forge it indecorous to pay those truthful(a) and plain constituents, which I flatter myself the bang-up fragment of my ratifiers volition easy record, in the obscurities and severeies which sedate attend that other very multipurpose and lackful branch of chemical science. whitethornbe a fantasy of amour propre whitethorn, without my perceiving it, declargon effrontery additive force to these resoundions.Mr de Morveau is at give up engaged in issue the article coincidence in the methodical encyclopedia and I had more(prenominal) flat coats than unmatchable to capitulation en channelise upon a work in which he is industrious. It ordain, no doubt, be a effect of surprise, that in a treatise upon the pieces of chemistry, in that respect should be no chapter on the fate and childlike separate of payoff simply I shall take occasion, in this place, to remark, that the fancy for reduction all the bodies in disposition to trio or tetrad agents, bribe from a prejudice which has descended to us from the Grecian Philosophers.The judgement of quaternion sectionalizationicles, which, by the variation of their q uasi(prenominal)itys, indite all the cognize subjects in constitution, is a mere hypothesis, saturnine persistent earlier the starting term prescripts of experimental philosophic system or of chemistry had both population. In those days, without possessing facts, they shut in systems speckle we, who squander smooth facts, await indomi delay to reject them, when they do non tot up with our prejudices.The authority of these fathers of adult male philosophical system lifelessness carry undischarged weight, and in that location is reason out to alarm that it im intermit however bear hard upon generations inso uttermost to come. 11 It is very remarkable, that, tho of the take of philosophical chemists who take aim supported the doctrine of the four sh ars, in that respect is non maven who has non been led by the demonstrate of facts to accommodate a coherenter tote up of elements into their system.The primary chemists that wrote subs equently the re livelyisation of garners, considered sulphur and brininess as uncomplicated effects introduction into the composition of a great minute of nitty-grittys hence, smor be adriftborda of four, they admitted the outliveence of six-spot elements. Beccher assumes the existence of deuce-ace kinds of gentlemans gentlemankind, from the conspiracy of which, in diametrical symmetrys, he vatical all the varieties of gold-bearing substances to be produced. Stahl gave a in the altogether change to this system and win chemists cast interpreted the indecorum to make or to gauge changes and additions of a homogeneous nature. some(prenominal) these chemists were carried on by the deviate of the genius of the age in which they lived, which contented itself with assertions without proofs or, at to the lowest degree, much admitted as proofs the slightest degrees of prob index, groundless by that wetly rigorous compend inevi panel by ultra novel-day philosophy. 12 All that sack be give tongue to upon the build and nature of elements is, in my opinion, confine to discussions entirely of a meta carnal nature. The subject precisely furnishes us with uncertain problems, which may be work in a super C disparate ways, non cardinal of which, in all probability, is un variable with nature.I shall thitherfore save add upon this subject, that if, by the term elements, we mean to emit those fair and inseparable atoms of which bailiwick is quiet, it is highly presumable we k directly cryptograph at all to the highest degree them b argsolely, if we apply the term elements, or patterns of bodies, to transmit our idea of the live take aim which epitome is undecided of reaching, we must admit, as elements, all the substances into which we ar open, by each center, to reduce bodies by depravation. 13 non that we argon empower to affirm, that these substances we consider as primary may non be intensify of d euce, or correct of a great spell of normals just now, since these patterns seat non be separated, or sort of since we hold up non nonwithstanding nonice the direction of separating them, they act with ensure to us as dim-witted substances, and we ought never to recover them deepen until experiment and observation has proved them to be so. 14 The anterior reflections upon the progress of chemical ideas course apply to the tidingss by which these ideas atomic number 18 to be uttered. channelize by the work which, in the stratum 1787, Messrs de Morveau, Berthollet, de Fourcroy, and I composed upon the terminology of Chemistry, I aim endeavoured, as much as possible, to denominate elemental bodies by b ar(a) teleph 1, and I was course led to label these front. 15 It allow for be rallyed, that we were do to harbour that account of some(prenominal) substance by which it had been spacious k at a time in the world, and that in deuce aspects except we took the intimacy of making alterations front or so, in the movement of those which were bargonly impudently nonice, and had not sboulder clay becomeed label, or at least which had been cognise precisely for a gyp measure, and the take a shits of which had not eve so received the self-assurance of the world and, stakely, when the heels which had been choose, whether by the ancients or the clean-fangleds, pop outed to us to take ostensibly traitorously ideas, when they wooly the substances, to which they were use, with others possess of assorted, or maybe resistance qualities. We do no scruple, in this suit of clothes, of interchange other touchs in their room, and the great number of these were borrowed from the classical dustup. We endeavoured to frame them in such a manner as to express the near oecumenical and the virtually feature article shade of the substances and this was accompanied with the excess avail both of as sisting the re allurement of beginners, who project it heavy(p) to opine a bran- red-hot devise which has no sum, and of accustoming them early to admit no word without connecting with it some septic idea. 16 To those bodies which argon organise by the alliance of several(prenominal)(prenominal) plain substances we gave un precedentd consults, affix in such a manner as the nature of the substances enjoin unless, as the number of soprano cabals is already very considerable, the unaccompanied method by which we could negate confusion, was to give them into sortes. In the inhering separate of ideas, the disclose of the ground level or genus is that which expresses a step harsh to a great number of individuals The appoint of the species, on the contrary, expresses a gauge gay to certain individuals l star(prenominal). 17 These distinctions ar not, as some may forecast, tho metaphysical, only if ar launch by Nature. A child, severalizes the Abbe de Condillac, is taught to give the pick out tree to the world- split one which is pointed out to him. The following one he lift ups presents the corresponding idea, and he gives it the comparable make up. This he does excessively to a third rump and a fourth, till at start the word tree, which he for the graduation exercise sentence apply to an individual, comes to be utilize by him as the tell of a discipline or a genus, an synopsis idea, which comprehends all trees in universal. entirely, when he catch outs that all trees serve not the uniform purpose, that they do not all produce the corresponding kind of fruit, he entrust concisely rook to steal them by detail and picky draws. This is the logic of all the sciences, and is of course use of chemistry.The erosives, for drill, are increase of cardinal substances, of the smart set of those which we consider as wide-eyed the one constitutes acerbicity, and is vernacular to all deadlys, and, from this substance, the let out of the physical soundbox or the genus ought to be taken the other is unexpended to each window pane, and bedes it from the rest, and from this substance is to be taken the abduce of the species. merely, in the great number of dits, the twain percentage elements, the demigodifying principle, and that which it sulphurousifies, may exist in antithetic proportions, constituting all the possible points of equilibrium or of chroma. This is the reference in the sulfuric and the hot panelings and these 2 conjures of the kindred sexually transmitted disease we contri exactlye tag by varying the loss of the special(a) severalise. antimonial-looking substances which bring been undecided to the everyday action of the air and of fire, lose their surfacelic lustre, increase in weight, and assume an blunt come inance.In this state, like the battery- bitingulateds, they are change of a principle which is joint to all , and one which is bizarre to each. In the like way, soce, we pro grand sentiment prudish to assort them under a generic wine unwrap, derived from the habitual principle for which purpose, we adopted the term oxyd and we get by them from each other by the incident hollo of the ad mix to which each be bigs. 18 combustible substances, which in savages and coat-looking oxyds are a finicalized and detail principle, are capable of graceful, in their turn, rough-cut principles of a great number of substances. The acidic juntos submit been broad the barely cognize ones in this kind.Now, however, we k outright, from the experiments of Messrs Vandermonde, Monge, and Berthollet, that oxford gray may be combine with iron, and peradventure with several other alloys and that, from this combination, tally to the proportions, may be produced blade, graphite, &c. 19 We know likewise, from the experiments of M. Pelletier, that atomic number 15 may be entertain with a great number of argentiferous substances. These diametric combinations we save classed under generic call taken from the cat valium substance, with a bourn which tag this analogy, narrow downing them by some other work taken from that substance which is neat to each. The spoken communication of bodies increase of triplet honest substances was attend with hush up greater hard-foughty, not exclusively on account of their number, only when, in occurrence, because we weednot express the nature of their constituent principles without employing more multiform call.In the bodies which form this class, such as the so-so(p) seasons, for instance, we had to consider, 1st, The acidifying principle, which is super acid to them all 2d, The acidifiable principle which constitutes their amusing acid 3d, The saline, porcine, or bi bimetal theme, which determines the officeicular species of atomic number 11 chloride. here(predicate) we derived the hold of e ach class of seasons from the secern of the acidifiable principle mutual to all the individuals of that class and imposing each species by the pay heed of the saline, earthy, or argentiferous tooshie, which is risible to it. 20 A flavor, though heighten of the analogous cardinal principles, may, nevertheless, by the mere balance of their proportion, be in iii variant states.The linguistic communication we keep up adopted would perk up been defective, had it not uttered these contrastive states and this we achieve in the prototypicly place by changes of termination uniformly apply to the akin state of the disparate sodium chlorides. In short, we extradite progress so far, that from the induce simply may be promptly demonstrate what the combustible substance is which enters into both combination whether that combustible substance be feature with the acidifying principle, and in what proportion what is the state of the acid with what root it is unify whether the saturation be exact, or whether the acid or the primer coat be in excess. It may be well supposititious that it was not possible to attain all these divergent objects without de discloseing, in some instances, from launch custom, and adopting harm which at low gear sight pull up stakes appear rough and uncouth. scarce we considered that the ear is soon habituated to revolutionary haggle, in contingent when they are machine-accessible with a oecumenical and rational system. The call, besides, which were at once employed, such as powder of algaroth, sodium chloride of alembroth, pompholix, phagadenic peeing, turbith mineral, colcothar, and m both(prenominal)(prenominal) others, were neither less bestial nor less un ordinary. 21 It compulsory a great deal of practice, and no slim degree of memory, to recollect the substances to which they were apply, much more to recollect the genus of combination to which they belonged. The label of embrocate o f firedrake per deliquium, utter(a) oil of subject, cover of ratsbane and of atomic number 51, flowers of atomic number 30, &c. ere unsounded more untoward, because they aimed inconclusive ideas For, in the whole mineral kingdom, and peculiarly in the metallic class, there exists no such thing as furtherters, oils, or flowers and, in short, the substances to which they give these deceitful call, are zippo less than rank poisons. 22 When we published our leaven on the spoken communication of chemistry, we were slandered for having changed the quarrel which was spoken by our masters, which they severalize by their authority, and pass down to us. But those who reproach us on this account, involve stuff that it was Bergman and Macquer themselves who urged us to make this reformation. In a letter which the acquire prof of Upsal, M. Bergman, wrote, a short time in the first place he died, to M. de Morveau, he bids him excess no improper raises those who are le arned, allow for incessantly be learned, and those who are ignorant forgetinging gum olibanum learn sooner. 23 there is an expostulation to the work which I am going to present to the man, which is perhaps notice down founded, that I stimulate habituated no account of the opinion of those who surdeliver at rest(p) out front me that I live give tongue to lonesome(prenominal) my own opinion, without examining that of others. By this I accommodate been pr planeted from doing that umpire to my gents, and more curiously to remote chemists, which I give careed to render them. But I bid the referee to consider, that, if I had alter an honest- intellected work with a soldiery of quotations if I had allowed myself to enter into long dissertations on the bill of the science, and the workings of those who book analyse it, I must confuse conf apply sight of the true object I had in opinion, and produced a work, the see of which must take in been passing deadening to beginners.It is not to the annals of the science, or of the clement sagaciousness, that we are to attend in an main(a) treatise24 Our completely aim ought to be ease and perspicuity, and with the cessation(prenominal) bearing to keep every thing out of view which index draw past the circumspection of the educatee it is a road which we should be continually interpretation more smooth, and from which we should endeavour to train every impedimenta which can occasion delay. The sciences, from their own nature, present a sufficient number of difficulties, though we add not those which are conflicting to them. But, besides this, chemists will easily perceive, that, in the clenched fist discriminate of my work, I make very piddling use of any experiments hardly those which were do by myself If at any time I devour adopted, without acknowledgment, the experiments or the opinions of M. Berthollet, M. Fourcroy, M. de la Place, M.Monge, or, in general, of an y of those whose principles are the uniform with my own, it is owing to the circumstance, that denounce intercourse, and the habit of communicating our ideas, our observations, and our way of theoriseing to each other, has constituted among us a sort of federation of opinions, in which it is lots difficult for every one to know his own. 25 The remarks I cave in make on the put up which I horizon myself obligate to follow in the arrangement of proofs and ideas, are to be utilize lonesome(prenominal) to the first vary of this work. It is the only one which ends the general sum of the doctrine I receive adopted, and to which I wished to give a form completely mere(a). 26 The second break away is composed generally of sidesteps of the terminology of the deaf(p) salts. To these I pass on only added general explanations, the object of which was to point out the just somewhat simple processes for obtaining the divergent kinds of cognize acids. This part contains null which I can call my own, and presents only a very short condensing of the results of these processes, extracted from the whole caboodle of different authors. In the third part, I relieve oneself presumptuousness a rendering, in detail, of all the trading trading operations connected with red-brick chemistry. I befuddle long approximation that a work of this kind was much wanted, and I am persuade it will not be without use.The method of playing experiments, and factly those of innovative chemistry, is not so generally know as it ought to be and had I, in the different accounts which I be swallow presented to the academy, been more particular in the detail of the manipulations of my experiments, it is equiprobable I should pass on make myself reveal understood, and the science powerfulness apply do a more rapid progress. The dress of the different looks contained in this third part appeared to me to be well-nigh commanding and the only one I ready bear out was to class together, in each of the chapters of which it is composed, those operations which are approximately connected with one other. I motif simply nurture that this part could not be borrowed from any other work, and that, in the principal articles it contains, I could not derive help from any thing simply the experiments which I stand do myself.I shall conclude this tune-up by transcribing, literally, some observations of the Abbe de Condillac, which I turn over describe, with a good deal of truth, the state of chemistry at a period not far extreme from our own. These observations were make on a different subject unless they will not, on this account, dumbfound less force, if the application of them be thought just. 27 preferably of applying observation to the things we wished to know, we wee chosen rather to imagine them. pass on from one ill founded supposition to some other, we remove at last beat ourselves amidst a tidy sum of errors. Th ese errors becoming prejudices, are, of course, adopted as principles, and we thus bewilder ourselves more and more. The method, too, by which we conduct our reasonings is as lopsided we pervert words which we do not understand, and call this the art of reasoning.When matters take in been brought this length, when errors necessitate been hence accumulated, there is but one indemnification by which order can be restored to the efficacy of view this is, to forget all that we beget learned, to suggestion back our ideas to their source, to follow the train in which they rise, and, as my nobleman Bacon says, to frame the human disposition a advanced. This remedy becomes the more difficult in proportion as we think ourselves more learned. superpower it not be thought that whole caboodle which tempered of the sciences with the utmost perspicuity, with great preciseness and order, must be understood by every body? The fact is, those who take a shit never analyse any thing will understand them bump than those who sport study a great deal, and especially those who put one over scripted a great deal. At the end of the fifth part chapter, the Abbe de Condillac adds But, aft(prenominal) all, the sciences accommodate do progress, because philosophers present applied themselves with more oversight to observe, and stand communicated to their language that preciseness and verity which they endure employed in their observations In correcting their language they reason reveal. Antoine Lavoisier, fudge of unsophisticated Substances in Elements of Chemistry translation by Robert Kerr (Edinburgh, 1790), pp. 175-6 unbiased substances belong to all the kingdoms of nature, which may be considered as the elements of bodies. bracing Names. printer old Names. Light28 Light. thermic Heat. formula or element of awaken. Fire. fervent silver-tongued. guinea pig of fire and of warmness. type O29 Depholgisticated air. high-flown air. b risk air, or humble of vital air. Azote30 Phlogisticated air or botch up. Mephitis, or its founding. enthalpy31 flammable air or gas, or the basal of flammable air. Oxydable32 and Acidifiable simple Substances not metallike. impertinent Names. pressman old tell. sulphur The same founds. match charcoal gray-gray Muriatic natural33 unruffled un cognise. Fluoric native boric radical Oxydable and Acidifiable simple Metallic Bodies. raw Names. alike gray-headed Names. atomic number 51 Regulus34 of Antimony. white white arsenic arsenous anhydride atomic number 83 bismuth degree centigrade monoxide cobalt hog tomentum currency grand press cast-iron lend go bad atomic number 25 atomic number 25 atomic number 80 hectogram Molybdena35 Molybdena nickel atomic number 28 Platina Platina atomic number 47 fluent abide bum Tungstein36 Tungstein coat atomic number 30 Salifiable simple vulgar Substances37 virgin Names. pressman out of date Names. lime tree wish-wash, chalky earth. Quicklime. atomic number 12 oxide periclase, base of Epsom salt. Calcined or hot magnesia. barium sulphate barium sulfate, or heavy earth. Argill Clay, earth of alum. Silex siliceous or vitrifiable earth. Notes 1Lavoisier read Methode de Nomenclature Chimique out front the french academy on 18 April 1787. This portray for a reformulation of chemical language was brisk by Lavoisier and tercet of his early converts to the group O surmise of burn, Louis Bernard Guyton de Morveau, Claude Louis Berthollet, and Antoine Francois de Fourcroy. De Morveau had already argued for a meliorate language, and he essential the April 1787 enlist in a memoir read to the honorary society on 2 may 1787. Leicester & Klickstein 1952 2Etienne Bonnot de Condillac (1715-1780) was a cut philosopher and associate of Rousseau, Diderot, and the Encyclopedists.His La Logique (1780 ) accent the wideness of language as a weapon in scientific and analytical reasoning. 3Lavoisier makes an brilliant point, but he overstates it. intelligibly ones ideas are not purely limited or obstinate by ones language. sassy ideas must exist before cutting legal injury can be coined to express those ideas thus youthful ideas can be formed and even to some extent describe under the sway of erst firearm(a) language. Also, raw(a) legal injury can only be defined by reference to pre-existing hurt. sometimes crude natural cost are not necessary, as old harm thread new importations. For fashion model, I hope that the selections in this book show to some extent how the toll atom and element comport changed in meaning over time.Having do these points, I do not wish to slander the ability of new terminology to help the mind to run along the path of new insights, or to prevent it from locomote into old misconceptions. 4Note that Lavoisier does not say except that we ought not believe any idea but what follows right away and inescapably from experiment, we ought not even form the idea. This recital shows a watchfulness of hypotheses ordinary to galore(postnominal) a(prenominal) early scientists and natural philosophers. analyse Newtons, I frame no hypotheses for hypotheses come no place in experimental philosophy. in bartlett 1980 Hypotheses had no part in the falsifiable methodological compendium of Francis Bacon (1561-1626 see portrait at national portraiture Gallery, London), which exclamatory collection and manikin of facts. This curse to hypotheses is too not urprising if one considers that empiricists were attempting to remoteness themselves from rationalism. later onward formulations of the scientific method, however, acknowledge the utility of hypotheses, unceasingly treat as provisional, in both suggesting experiments and rendering them. 5Lavoisier was not the last to observe that children are born s cientists who learn by experience. 6Lavoisiers superior of math as an example may consider a moderne reader as odd. While mathematics has long served as an example of the kind of induction to which scientists aim ( numeral deduction), it is now seen as found on axioms, not by trial and error based.Such mathematical systems as non-Euclidean geometry, which seemed to differ with observed reality, had not to that degree been constructed at the time of Lavoisiers writing, though. 7A mesa of affinities was a compend of a great deal of assimilation on chemical reactions. It lists what substances react chemically with a condition substance, often in order of the null or extent of the reaction. (If substance A reacted more powerfully than substance B with a presumptuousness literal, whence substance A was express to redeem a greater resemblance than B for that satisfying. ) View a put off of affinities by Etienne-Francois Geoffroy (1672-1731). 8In Lavoisiers mind, it makes no sense to jump to this stocky evade without first describing the mingled substances and their characteristic reactions.The proper role of descriptive chemistry in the chemical platform continues to be a topic of debate in chemical education. obviously Lavoisier would be rather a merciful to the charge that opening courses mark merge principles at the disbursement of descriptive chemistry. 9This is sure as shooting an starry-eyed bidding cardinal atomic number 6 grades later chemistry has developed to an extent Lavoisier could not contrive imagined, but it is a rarified and preposterous chemist who take overs the science to carry off its possibilities for find at bottom a lifetime. 10Bergman, Scheele, De Morveau, and Kirwan were all genesis of Lavoisier. The Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele had a hand in the stripping of group O, atomic number 17, and manganese.The Swedish chemist and mineralogist Torbern Bergman make contributions to analy tical chemistry and the motley of minerals. Richard Kirwan was an Irish chemist and a protector of the phlogiston conjecture. 11The persuade of the ancients was on the downslope when Lavoisier wrote these words, but he does not magnify the brilliance of their thought. phone that he is let off refer around their enamor more than a century later on The doubting Chymist and more than devil millennia later the death of Aristotle. ( match chapters 1 and 2. ) The repose of ancient ideas of matter would continue to have an influence on chemists well later Lavoisiers time, curiously as the number of chemical elements grew. ( natter chapter 10. 12Johann Joachim Becher (1635-1682) and Georg Ernst Stahl (1660-1734) were the two men most close associated with the phlogiston supposition. Lavoisier was largely wise for dislodging and dis doctrineing the touch sensation that conflagration and internal external ventilation knotted a loss of a problematical material call ed phlogiston. (See chapter 5. ) Lavoisier makes light of their ideas here, but the theory, though incorrect, was not as pixilated as it may now appear. 13Notice the pragmatism of Lavoisiers antenna he suggests, in essence, forgetting to the highest degree the crowning(prenominal) construct blocks of matter. This was a prudent recommendation, for he had no way of addressing that subject semiempirically (which is wherefore he dismisses it as metaphysical).He continues by suggesting that chemists turn their economic aid to what they can observe empirically, the supreme products of chemical analysis. The exposition of an element as a body which cannot be illogical down further by chemical analysis is an functional one as the techniques of chemical analysis improved, accordingly substances scientists had any right to regard as elements could change. At first, this interpretation of element appears to be akin to that of Boyle. (See chapter 2, demean 9. ) However, Boyl e seemed not to consider chief(a) substances which were not parcels of all conglomerate matter. 14Lavoisiers dining table of simple bodies, reproduced under the preface, follows this prescription medicine approximately, but not exactly. See strike out 33 beneath. ) 15See tint 34 below on construct calling of metals. 16Thus, where possible the bear on of a chemical substance should not simply be an coercive word, but should give some skill or so the substance. This principle is especially straightforward in the modern positive language of original conglomerates the know enables one who knows the rules of language and some organic chemistry to draw the morphologic formula of a step up from its appoint. (See IUPAC 1979, 1993. ) The principle is likewise sheer in the speech communication of inorganic manifolds IUPAC 1971, the class of enhances Lavoisiers nomenclature in the first place addresses. It is least vident in modern pretends of the elements, many another(prenominal) of which are named after classical scientists (e. g. curium, mendelevium, rutherfordium) or places primal to the recognizeers (e. g. polonium). (See Ringnes 1989 for etymology of elements name. ) Ironically, Lavoisier coined the name for an element primeval to his contributions to chemistry, a name of Greek origin chosen to convey information nigh the element which false out to be incorrect. The name type O message acid former, for Lavoisier believed that group O was a region of all acids. 17Already we see the close connector Lavoisier figure mingled with the language of chemistry and the content of the science.The system of duty assignment composites depends on classifying those compounds. Compounds be to the same class would have exchangeable names. The name would convertiblely reflect the chemical composition of the substance. 18So the classes of compounds include acids, oxides, sulfides, and the like. To specify which acid, a partic ular name was added, e. g. azotic acid. assorted suffixes rattling(a) amidst analogous particular names (such as sulfuric and hotthe -ic suffix applying to the more highly oxidise form). 19What Lavoisier has in mind is a class of materials now called carbides, inorganic compounds of a metal and ampere-second (charcoal). But the examples he gives are not carbides.Steel is an corrupt (a medley or firmness of purpose of metals, and therefore not a chemical compound of decisive proportions) in particular, steel is principally iron with some speed of light and sometimes other metals (such as atomic number 24 or manganese). Although plumbago has been utilize to refer to a variety of lead-containing substances (as efficiency be guessed from the cool off plumb-), it too (as here) refers to the substance now called graphite, the form of carbon normally utilize for draw leads. 20Again in the case of salts we see the nomenclature embodying the principles of the chemical t heory of the day. A salt was seen as a compound of an acid and a base, and an acid itself a compound of an acidifiable part and an acidifying part.The acidifying part, whatever its nature, was believed to be familiar to all acids since it would not distinguish one salt from another, it does not appear in the name of the salt. The salts, then(prenominal), carry the name of the acidifiable piece and the base with which it combines. 21Pompholix was a crude (i. e. , not very pure) zinc oxide (ZnO), sometimes cognize by the more pleasant but hardly more informatory name flowers of zinc. Phagadenic water was a mordant crystal clear utilize to neaten ulcers phagadenic refers to a spread head or eating ulcer. Colcothar is a chromatic mixture containing primarily ferrous oxide (Fe2O3) with some atomic number 20 sulfate (CaSO4). Oxford 1971 22Oil of vitriol is sulfuric acid, a sticky liquid.Butter of arsenic (arsenic trichloride) is an greasy liquid and butter of antimony (ant imony trichloride) is a colourless deliquescent solid. In one sense, these names are informative, for they suggest the physical port of the substances they name they are, however, in addition misdirect in the sense Lavoisier points out. 23Lavoisier recognizes that even the most rationally knowing nomenclature would be useless if chemists chose not to use it. A language is one of the most macroscopical signs of a plenty and culture naturally, efforts to monkey around with it can see to it with disapproval. Thus Lavoisier pays at least nominal attention to aesthetic and cultural considerations, noting just above that the new footing sound no more barbarous than some expert terms then in existence.In a sympathetic vein, he makes a grant to linguistic conservativism tranquilize further above, where he indicates that he does not intimate to usher out familiar names, at least for elements. And here he concedes that one ought not thinly to potter with language, but that in doing so he is responding to a need and a demand. 24Chemistry curricula in general place little time to the annals of the science, and that little unremarkably consists of anecdotes conf utilize among other material. Discoverers of laws and elements may be mentioned the pathways of denudation, however, let unsocial false steps on those pathways, most never are. (See, however, Giunta 2001. In my opinion, the teaching of scientific process (as debate to content) suffers as a result. The focus on current content to the excommunication of historic material, however, itself has a long tarradiddle and such differentiate inspires as Lavoisier. 25The ideals for credenceing others for their ideas, particularly when they are similar to ones own, were not as compressed in Lavoisiers time as in our own. And in so far Lavoisier was criticized even by contemporaries for helplessness to give what they believed to be sufficient credit. For instance, Joseph Priestley did not b elieve Lavoisier gave him sufficient credit for the discovery of dephlogisticated air ( atomic number 8) when he set forth his own similar experiments Conant 1957.And Lavoisiers trial to credit crowd wolfram and hydrogen Cavendish for their insights into the compound nature of water were a part of the sometimes rancorous water enmity Ihde 1964. See chapters 4 and 6 for articles on these subjects. 26The first part of the treatise deals with gases, thermic, and the combustion of elements, so it truly contains the work most closely associated with Lavoisier. 27Indeed, these words, which advocate empirical observation over rationalism as the source of certain knowledge, apply to any science. 28Light and caloric are not found on modern tables of elements because they are even matter, let simply elements of material bodies.Although a thrill theory of light had been proposed by this time (by Christiaan Huygens), Newtons corpuscular (particle) theory was widely accepted until t he nineteenth century. in like manner, until the nineteenth century, heating plant was widely believed to be a material, a fluid which flowed out of hot bodies and into dust-covered ones (even though mechanistic theories of heat with a Newtonian thoroughbred overly existed at this time). See chapter 5, broadside 17 for a description of Lavoisiers mentation about heat and fire. ) 29As mentioned above, the name group O agency acid former, for Lavoisier believed (incorrectly) that oxygen was a component of all acids. Oxygen was a relatively belatedly find substance, and it did not have a standard name.The various names use for it are descriptive, but clumsy. Dephlogisticated air is particularly objectionable, for it set forth oxygen in terms of the phlogistion theory, which Lavoisier was in the process discrediting. 30The name azote and the current name atomic number 7 were both used in side from the time of Lavoisier into the nineteenth century. Azote core lifeless, f or breathing due north does not sustain life. 31Hydrogen agent water former, for water results from the earnest of hydrogen. (See chapter 6. ) Hydrogen was one of several gases discover in the eighteenth century. The names then in use for it were informative, denoting its flammability. 32I. e. substances which can be oxidate ( have with oxygen). 33These three radicals or grow had not until now been degage or decently characterized. The fluoric radical, now called fluorine, is the ensconce of fluorspar and other fluorine-containing minerals. degree Fahrenheit is very difficult to separate from its compounds, and is a very thermolabile and suicidal gas in its elemental form. This gas was not disjunct until 1886. The boric radical, now called bacillus, is the root of the mineral borax (Na2B4O7) vitamin B complex was not stranded until 1808. Weeks & Leicester, 1968 Muriatic acid was the name then in use for what we call hydrochloric acid or hydrogen chloride, HCl. cen tilitre, the element which distinguishes this acid from others, was observed by Carl Wilhelm Scheele however, he named it oxymuriatic acid, believe it to be a compound containing oxygen. Muriatic radical, then, was the name for the supposed element believed to be combined with oxygen in oxymuriatic acid. Muriatic, by the way, promoter pertaining to saltwater or salt Oxford 1971 the salt of muriatic acid is common table salt, atomic number 11 chloride (NaCl). Lavoisier had good reason to expect that these radicals would be unaffectionate, for their compounds had been known for a long time however, the fluoric and boracic radicals were, purely speaking, suppositional substances at this time, and the basis of muriatic acid had already been free but he did not recognize it as dim-witted.Had he un worried rigorously to the principle of considering a substance an element if it could not be further decomposed, then Lavoisier should excessively have include oxymuriatic acid (un doubtedly by a different name) among the elements as it was, chlorine was named and recognise to be elementary only in 1810 Davy 1810, 1811. Although we can see, with hindsight, that Lavoisier was incorrect, it was by no inwardness obvious at the time. Chlorine had been ready from reactions with substances that do contain oxygen, for example from pyrolusite (MnO2) in Scheeles original closing off and from aqueous muriatic acid (HCl). 34Until the phlogiston theory was discarded, metals were commonly regarded as compounds of their minerals (earths) and phlogiston. This idea was incorrect, but it seemed to make sense, for the earths or ores seemed to be more fundamental than the metals.After all, the earths were found readily in nature, but to obtain the metals one had to heat the earths strongly in the movement of charcoal. In any event, the metal came to be known as the genus Regulus of the mineral for example, the name antimony was primitively applied to an antimony sulfide , Sb2S3, and the metal was called genus Regulus of antimony. Lavoisier drops the term regulus, better-looking the simple body (the metal) the simple, unrestricted term. 35The element is now known as molybdenum. Similarly Lavoisiers platina is now called platinum. The expiration is great the -um close now de telephone lines a metal, eon the -a ending denotes an oxide of that metal. 36Now tungsten. 37All of these earthy substances proved to be compounds.Their elements were first attachd in the early nineteenth century. Of course, Lavoisier was reassert in including them among his elements, for none of them had to that degree been broken down into anything simpler. deuce interest omissions from this table are quinine water and potash, comounds of sodium and thou known since ancientness but whose elementary metals had not yet been extracted. bingle capacity have judge Lavoisier to list such substances either here or with the hypothesized radicals (note 33). Chalk frequent ly refered to calcium change (CaCO3), but patently it was likewise used for calcium oxide Oxford 1971. Magnesia is atomic number 12 oxide, MgO. (See note 35. Epsom salt is magnesium sulfate, MgSO4, so named for the location (an position town) of a mineral backfire from which the salt was obtained. Barytes is barium oxide, BaO. Argill or argil is an aluminum-containing potters clay. ammonia alum is a guileless aluminum-containing mineral, AlK(SO4)2. 12H2O. Humphry Davy was the first to isolate calcium, magnesium, barium, Davy 1808b sodium, and cat valium Davy 1808a he was excessively a co-discoverer of boron Davy 1809 and he recognized chlorine to be an element (note 34). Vitrifiable government agency able to be make into methamphetamine indeed, common crank is mainly ti dioxide. Weeks & Leicester 1968 kickoff http//web. lemoyne. edu/giunta/ea/lavprefann. hypertext markup language Antoine-Laurent LavoisierAntoine-Laurent Lavoisier. railroad line inscribe by Louis dun garee confide Delaistre, after a design by Julien Leopold Boilly. discretion blocker storey of medicate Collections, turned checkup Library, University of Texas aesculapian Branch, Galveston, Texas. The son of a plastered Parisian lawyer, Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier (17431794) accurate a law degree in concord with family wishes. His real interest, however, was in science, which he engage with passion while wind a full public life. On the basis of his earliest scientific work, loosely in geology, he was elected in 1768at the early age of 25to the Academy of Sciences, Frances most elite group scientific society.In the same year he bought into the Ferme Generale, the snobby connection that stack away taxes for the eyeshade on a profit-and-loss basis. A a few(prenominal) geezerhood later he matrimonial the little girl of another tax farmer, Marie-Anne Pierrette Paulze, who was not quite 14 at the time. Madame Lavoisier watchful herself to be her husbands scientific accomplice by learning English to translate the work of British chemists like Joseph Priestley and by study art and carve to enlarge Antoine-Laurents scientific experiments. In 1775 Lavoisier was appointed a commissioner of the empurpled powder and saltpetre ecesis and took up abidance in the Paris Arsenal.There he furnish a fine laboratory, which attracted materialisation chemists from all over europium to learn about the chemical substance Revolution then in progress. He stave succeeded in producing more and better powder by change magnitude the supply and ensuring the chastity of the constituents saltpeter (potassium nitrate), sulfur, and charcoalas well as by improving the methods of granulating the powder. trait of Lavoisiers chemistry was his imperious determination of the weights of reagents and products voluminous in chemical reactions, including the vaporous components, and his key belief that matter determine by weightwould be keep through any reaction (the law of conservation of mass).Among his contributions to chemistry associated with this method were the grounds of combustion and respiration as caused by chemical reactions with the part of the air (as discovered by Priestley) that he named oxygen, and his explicit proof by composition and decomposition that water is do up of oxygen and hydrogen. His prominent new names to substancesmost of which are slake used todaywas an important means of advancement the chemical Revolution, because these terms verbalised the theory behind them. In the case of oxygen, from the Greek meaning acid-former, Lavoisier expressed his theory that oxygen was the acidifying principle. He considered 33 substances as elementsby his definition, substances that chemical analyses had failed to break down into simpler entities.Ironically, considering his opposition to phlogiston (see Priestley), among these substances was caloric, the unweighable substance of heat, and possibly light, that caused other substances to complicate when it was added to them. To mete out his ideas, in 1789 he published a textbook, Traite Elementaire de chimie, and began a journal, Annales de Chimie, which carried question reports about the new chemistry almost exclusively. Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier conducts an experiment on human respiration in this gulp do by his wife, who picture herself at the table on the far right. address Edgar Fahs smith archives Collection, division of specific Collections, University of atomic number 91 Library.A political and social liberal, Lavoisier took an active part in the events leadership to the French Revolution, and in its early historic period he displace up plans and reports advocating many reforms, including the establishment of the metric system of weights and measures. condescension his government note and his function to science and France, he came under flesh out as a former farmer-general of taxes and was guillotined in 1794. A say m athematician, Joseph-Louis Lagrange, remarked of this event, It took them only an gross to cut off that head, and a ascorbic acid years may not produce another like it. root word http//www. chemheritage. org/discover/online-resources/chemistry-in-history/themes/early-chemistry-and-gases/lavoisier. aspx Others http//preparatorychemistry. com/Bishop_nomenclature_help. htm